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SOCIAL WORK THEORY

lOMoARcPSD|32052913

Intro.TO Social WORK Theory

Development studies and ethics (Zetech University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

GANANA INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL SCIENCES AND

TECHNOLOGY

Social Work Theory, Methods & Practice

Certificate level

CERTIFICATE IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL WORK

COURSE OUTLINECERTIFICATE SOCIAL WORK

Mr. Joseph M.

Week	Topic	Sub-topic	Reference
1&2	Introduction to social work	Meaning of social work Legal responsibility of social workers Areas of social work practice	Social work &social administratio n hand out
3	Scope of social work	Historical background of social work Importance of social work Roles of social workers in the community/society	Introduction to community development teachers guide
4	Cat 1
5&6	Ethics of social work principles and standards	Declaration of social work ethical principles Principles of social work	Internet
7&8	Social work relationship with other disciplines	Social work relationship with other disciplines	Introduction to community development teachers guide
9	CAT 2
10&1 1	Methods of social work	Meaning Types/ classification of methods of social work	Social work &social administratio n hand out
12	Methods of social work	Group formation Stages of group formation Functions of groups Community organization methods Social research	Social work &social administratio n hand out
13	Revision week

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TOPIC 1

MEANING OF SOCIAL WORK

Social work is a profession concerned with helping individuals, families, groups and communities to enhance their individual and collective well-being. It aims to help people develop their skills and their ability to use their own resources and those of the community to resolve problems. Social work is concerned with individual and personal problems but also with broader social issues such as poverty, unemployment and domestic violence.

Human rights and social justice are the philosophical underpinnings of social work practice. The uniqueness of social work practice is in the blend of some particular values, knowledge and skills, including the use of relationship as the basis of all interventions and respect for the client’s choice and involvement.

In a socio-political-economic context which increasingly generates insecurity and social tensions, social workers play an important and essential role.

Common activities of social workers

I. Social workers determine people’s social emotions, economic problems and needs

II. Social workers provide services to address the needs of the people i.e. by referring clients for appropriate professional or community services. This can also be done further through development of resources, programmes and social policies to address community needs

III. Social workers administer and manage social services

IV. Social workers co-ordinate and work with government, private and religious organizations to converts social problems through community awareness

V. Social workers work incorporation with the community to identify needs and improve social services and systems to meet their needs

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VI. Social workers help with emotional, social and own problems so that students can focus on getting education

VII. Social workers improve social programmes and health service through research and encouraging communities and organizations to be responsive to identified needs, plans and develop social and health policies and programmes.

VIII. Social workers analyse social problems, design and conduct in-depth studies and develop ways for social programs and systems to overcome the problem

IX. In psychiatric and mental health, care setting social workers provide psychotheraphy and counseling.

THE MISSION OF SOCIAL WORK

Caring

In social work we realize that there are so many concerns and conditions that affect people. The purpose of social work is to show concern and the desires to help people

Curing

The main focus is to help people solve their own problems in other words social work acts as a social doctor to help people solve their own problems

Changing

Social change is necessary. Social workers are committed to reforming existing laws, procedures and attitudes which are more responsive to human needs

Where Do Social Workers Work?

Social workers work in a variety of settings: family services agencies, children’s aid agencies, general and psychiatric hospitals, school boards, correctional institutions,

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welfare administration agencies, federal and provincial departments. An increasing number of social workers work in private practice.

What Do Social Workers Do?

Social workers provide services as members of a multidisciplinary team or on a one- to-one basis with the client. The duties performed by social workers vary depending on the settings in which they work.

Social workers employed by child welfare agencies (public and private) investigate cases of family violence, child abuse and neglect and take protective action as required. They may recruit foster parents or supervise the placement of children in protective care. Others work on adoption cases.

Many school boards hire social workers to help students adjust to the school environment. They help students, parents and teachers to deal with problems such as aggressive behaviour, truancy and family problems, which affect the students’ performance.

In general and psychiatric hospitals, social workers are members of the treatment team. They provide a link between the team and the family as well as with community resources. In these settings they contribute to the care, treatment and rehabilitation of the aged and of physically or mentally ill individuals, as well as the care of disabled persons.

In health and community services centres, social workers are involved in the provision of counseling to individuals or families and in providing services to seniors. Some work as community developers helping citizens to identify their needs and proposing ways of meeting these needs. Others may assist with parent-child relationships and marriage counseling. The services may be offered on an individual basis or in groups.

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In the correctional field, social workers may be part of a team concerned with the social rehabilitation of young or adult offenders. They may work as classification officers. Others work as probation officers or as parole officers. Parole officers help ex-prisoners adjust to life in the community while conforming to the conditions of their parole.

Social workers in private practice offer their services on a fee-for-service basis to individuals, families and organizations. Their services include counseling, psychotherapy, mediation, sex therapy, policy and program development, organizational development, and employee assistance programs.

Social workers involved in policy analysis, policy development and planning are usually working in federal and provincial departments or social planning councils. Researchers are found in universities and governments. Others are teaching in universities and community colleges.

Questions

1. Define a profession

2. How do you tell that social work is a profession? Discuss five ways

TOPIC 2

SCOPE OF SOCIAL WORK

Social work field is extensive in terms of training and practice. In training it gathers knowledge from various disciplines like history, sociology, philosophy, religion among

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others. In practice we have social services delivery institutions like schools, libraries among others. Social workers are highly trained with skills and knowledge in social sciences and levels of training goes up to philosophy level. In practice, social workers approach issues from dimension as preventive, developmental and rehabilitative.

The scope of social work practice is remarkably wide, social workers practice not only in traditional social service agency but also in elementary schools; in the military, offices among others. This means that social workers are found everywhere including at home.

Social workers have got some common skills and responsibilities that assist them when offering their services which include:

1. Advocate for individual clients or the community on identical problems

2. Serve as a broker by connecting individual with resources

3. Create and maintain professional helping relationship

4. Improve problem-solving, coping and development capacities of all people

5. Be able to engage and communicate with diverse population and groups of all sizes

6. Have a knowledge and understanding of human relationship

7. Provide services to not only support change in the individual but also in his/her environment as well

Importance of social work

1. To help alleviate personal and social problems

2. To assist in community development

3. To research on social and personal problems and give recommendations

4. To rehabilitate deviants in the society

5. To prevent social problems among others in the society

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6. To link people with systems that provide them with resources, services and opportunities

7. To promote the effective and human operation of the system that provide people with resources and services

Factors contributing to need for social work in developing countries

The need for social work in the developing countries is a result of many factors including:

1. Presence of many personal and social problems

2. Existing arms of government which cannot deal with all social problems

3. Influence from western countries who give alternative ways of solving social problems

Questions

1. Discuss the importance of social work

TOPIC 3

THE ETHICS OF SOCIAL WORK PRINCIPLES AND STANDARDS

1. Background

Ethical awareness is a necessary part of the professional practice of any social

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worker. His or her ability to act ethically is an essential aspect of the quality of the service offered to clients.

The purpose of IFSW's (international federation of social workers) work on ethics is to promote ethical debate and reflection in the member associations and among the providers of social work in member countries.

The basis for the further development of IFSW: work on ethics is to be found in "Ethics of Social Work - Principles and Standards" which consists of two documents, International Declaration of Ethical Principles of Social Work, and International Ethical Standards for Social Workers. These documents present the basic ethical principles of the social work profession, recommend procedure when the work presents ethical dilemmas, and deal with the profession's and the individual social worker's relation to clients, colleagues, and others in the field. The documents are components in a continuing process of use, review and revision.

International Declaration of Ethical Principles of Social Work

Principles

The social work profession is guided by a distinct set of abstract values and a Code of Ethics. These values are transformed into accepted practice principles for the purpose of informing our intervention with clients. What follows is a listing of nine Social Work Principles and brief description of each.

1. Acceptance - Acceptance is a fundamental social work principle that implies a sincere understanding of clients. Acceptance is conveyed in the professional relationship through the expression of genuine concern, receptive listening, intentional responses that acknowledge the other person's point of view, and the creation of a climate of mutual respect.

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2. Affirming Individuality - To affirm a client's individuality is to recognize and appreciate the unique qualities of that client. It means to "begin where the client is." Clients expect personalized understanding and undivided attention from professionals. Individualization requires freedom from bias and prejudice, an avoidance of labeling and stereotyping, a recognition and appreciation of diversity, and knowledge of human behavior.

3. Purposeful Expression of Feelings - Clients need to have opportunities to express their feelings freely to the social worker. As social workers, we must go beyond "just the facts" to uncover the underlying feelings.

4. Non-judgmentalism - Communicating non-judgmentalism is essential to developing a relationship with any client. It does not imply that social workers do not make decisions; rather it implies a non blaming attitude and behavior. Social workers judge others as neither good or bad nor as worthy or unworthy.

5. Objectivity - Closely related to non-judgmentalism, objectivity is the principle of examining situations without bias. To be objective in their observations and understanding, social workers must avoid injecting personal feelings and prejudices in relationships with clients.

6. Controlled Emotional Involvement - There are three components to a controlled emotional response to a client's situation: sensitivity to expressed or unexpressed feelings, and understanding based on knowledge of human behavior, and a response guided by knowledge and purpose. The social worker should not respond in a way that conveys coldness or lack of interest while at the same time cannot over identify with the client.

7. Self -Determination - The principle of self-determination is based on the recognition of the right and need of clients to freedom in making their own choices and decisions. Social workers have a responsibility to create a working relationship in which choice can be exercised.

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Access to Resources - Social workers are implored to assure that everyone has the necessary resources, services, and opportunities; to pay attention to expanding choices, and opportunities for the oppressed and disadvantages; and to advocate for policy and legislative changes that improve social conditions and promote social justice.

8. Confidentiality - Confidentiality or the right to privacy implies that clients must give expressed consent before information such as their identity, the content of discussions held with them, one's professional opinion about them, or their record is disclosed.

ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES

The social work code of ethics is relevant to all social workers and social work students regardless of their professional functions, the setting in which they work or the population they serve.

Social Work Standards Relative to Clients

1. Accept primary responsibility to identified clients, but within limitations set by the ethical claims of others.

2. Maintain the client's right to a relationship of trust, to privacy and confidentiality, and to responsible use of information. The collection and sharing of information or data is related to the professional service function with the client informed as to its necessity and use. No information is released without prior knowledge and informed consent of the client, except where the client cannot be responsible or others may be seriously jeopardized. A client has access to social work records concerning them.

3. Recognise and respect the individual goals, responsibilities, and differences of clients. Within the scope of the agency and the client's social milieu, the professional service shall assist clients to take responsibility for personal

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actions and help all clients with equal willingness. Where the professional service cannot be provided under such conditions the clients shall be so informed in such a way as to leave the clients free to act.

4. . Help the client - individual, group, community, or society- to achieve self- fulfilment and maximum potential within the limits of the respective rights of others. The service shall be based upon helping the client to understand and use the professional relationship, in furtherance of the clients’ legitimate desires and interests.

Social Work Standards Relative to Agencies and Organizations

1. Work and/or cooperate with those agencies and organizations whose policies, procedures, and operations are directed toward adequate service delivery and encouragement of professional practice consistent with the ethical principles of the IFSW.

2. Responsibly execute the stated aims and functions of the agency or organizations, contributing to the development of sound policies, procedures, and practice in order to obtain the best possible standards or practice.

3. Sustain ultimate responsibility to the client, initiating desirable alterations of policies, procedures, and practice, through appropriate agency and organization channels. If necessary remedies are not achieved after channels have been exhausted, initiate appropriate appeals to higher authorities or the wider community of interest.

4. Ensure professional accountability to client and community for efficiency and effectiveness through periodic review of the process of service provision.

5. Use all possible ethical means to bring unethical practice to an end when policies, procedures and practices are in direct conflict with the ethical principles of social work.

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Social Work Standards Relative to Colleagues

1. Acknowledge the education, training and performance of social work colleagues and professionals from other disciplines, extending all necessary cooperation that will enhance effective services.

2. . Recognise differences of opinion and practice of social work colleagues and other professionals, expressing criticism through channels in a responsible manner.

3. Promote and share opportunities for knowledge, experience, and ideas with all social work colleagues, professionals from other disciplines and volunteers for the purpose of mutual improvement.

4. Bring any violations of professionals ethics and standards to the attention of the appropriate bodies inside and outside the profession, and ensure that relevant clients are properly involved.

5. Defend colleagues against unjust actions.

Standards Relative to the Profession

1. Maintain the values, ethical principles, knowledge and methodology of the profession and contribute to their clarification and improvement.

2. Uphold the professional standards of practice and work for their advancement.

3. . Defend the profession against unjust criticism and work to increase confidence in the necessity for professional practice.

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4. Present constructive criticism of the profession, its theories, methods and practices

5. Encourage new approaches and methodologies needed to meet new and existing needs.

Revision questions

1. Briefly describe ethical principles of social work.

TOPIC 4

SOCIAL WORK RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER DISCIPLINES

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Sociology

This is an academic discipline that examines society and the behavior and beliefs of the specific groups in society. Sociologist study characteristics of all types of groupseg ethnic minorities, families, children, men etc

Sociology also examines the class studies of society through careful research they attempt to seek facts from fiction regarding the mythology surrounding various social groups.

Sociologists develop theory regarding how and what people become what they are and in particular they study the influence of the social environment on thought, behavior and personality.

Psychology

Social workers make use of information from other academic disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, political science, economics and biology. Psychology is te study of individuals and try to understand how they develop as they do and the important internal factors that influence a person’s mind and behavior. They draw much information from biology because the individual’s genetic make up is such a powerful influence on characteristics of man and behavior.

Human services

In its broadest definition human services includes all occupations and professions seeking to promote the health and well-being of society; lawyers social workers, teachers etc

While knowledge development is not ignored, the human service field emphasizes task completion and skill development. The human services worker is acquainted with such knowledge and skills and he is a person who does not have traditional, profession academic credentials but who through experience, training or education provides helping services and so is social work profession.

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Psychiatry

This is also related to social work. The psychiatrist’s primary focus of study is inner development. What makes individuals think, feel and behave as they do?

Psychiatrists have the special perspective provided b in-depth understanding of human anatomy and physiology and they can prescribe medications for their patients when appropriate psychologists and social workers on the other hand must refer their clients to a medical doctor.

Rehabilitation counseling

The rehabilitation councilor works with people who experience various disabilities for example physical. For example the person who is unfortunate enough to loose a limb in an industrial accident might qualify for vocational rehabilitation as might a person who has mental retardation or who lost a job because of alcoholism or mental illness.

The relationship between social work and social welfare Social welfare

This refers to the society’s effort to meet human needs by providing social services. Social welfare generally denotes the full range of organized activities of voluntary and government agencies that seek to prevent an event or contribute to the solution of recognized social problems or to improve the well-being of society.

The goal of social welfare is to fulfill the social, financial health or spiritual and recreational requirements of all individuals in the society.

Social welfare seeks to enhance the social functioning of all age groupsandalso the rich as well as the poor.

Social work is committed to the betterment of lives of people. Social work believes in the fundamental importance of improving social interaction thus social work profession has taken on the provision that all people should have the opportunity in meeting their social needs. The source of assistance mighty is with the family, friends

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or social programs. The profession maintains idealism about the ability and responsibility of society in providing opportunities and resource that allow the person to live a full and rewarding life.

Both social work and social welfare respect human life hence re-habilitation. They both aim at social control like law, religion etc hence preventing occurrences of harmful situations.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOCIAL WELFARE AND SOCIAL WORK

I. Social work is a profession that helps to provide social welfare

II. Social welfare is an institution whose mandate requires many different kinds of professions ie social work is a sub-set of social welfare institutions

III. Social work provides social welfare needs which individuals cannot meet on their own

IV. Social work is generic that is to say cuts across organizations and institutions. It fills in the gap which cannot be filled by others

Conceptual analysis of society

Every society has at least six elements and these includes

I. The resource base

II. Values and beliefs

III. Power structure

IV. Population

V. Social organization

VI. Inequality

THE RESOURCE BASE

Every society has a resource base of some kind. Each element of a resource base takes different forms and include;

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• Developmental ideas put forward by different kinds of people

• Wealth

• Infrastructure

Since the resources bases nation’s differs societies in the levels of comfort that is divides individuals. Some societies exists by subsistence level where all people are pre-occupied in production of food and providing for their own shelter with little or no assistance being available for all.

VALUES AND BELIEFS

Values are things desired by society to be done and they are based on feelings and preferences for certain means or collusion. Values are the assumptions and preferences about what is desirable in society. Every society has values and beliefs that are identifiable in various kinds of social welfare programs. Generally values are the best criteria for deciding what is desirable or undesirable, good or bad, right or wrong.

Beliefs are interpretations of how things work and how they happen. Values differ from society to society and they can not be subjected to scientific research.

NB; Beliefs and values not only influence explanations of the cause of problems but also determine how social problems are to be solved.

POPULATION

Members of a society collectively make up the society’s population. A society population always in a consistent change because it experiences to what is referred to as population dynamics eg Health, death birth migration etc. thee changes often generate needs and problems which often call for social welfare intervention e.g an increase in population can lead to a social problem of food shortage hence the need for agricultural modernization likewise when there are many death of parents. This calls for establishment of child care institutions particularly orphanage homes.

POWER STRUCURES

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Every society Has a unique pattern of distributing power. Power may be defined as the ability of a person to influence the actions of othersthroughpersuasion, or using forceful means. Societies differ in how they distribute powers amongst their members. Changes in social welfare programs can partly be due to changes in the distribution of power thus social welfare programs tend to change as regimes changes.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

A society consists of a population which carries out various activities which are not carried out in random but they are organized unto structures called social institutions. Social organization therefore is the totality of various institutions in society. All social institutions have different functions to perform in society. Examples of social institutions include;-

• Social welfare institutions

• Economic institutions

• Religious institutions

• Political institutions and cultural institutions

This all put together constitutes or form that we call social organizations

A social institution is a pattern of activities governed by values and norms and is carried out by persons in specified status with a view of fulfilling the right or their expectations i.e different behaviours and different roles as well as expectations apply to different spheres of human activities

The social organization of a society through its various institutions determines which needs will be meant, in what way and by which people.

INEQUALITY

One universal characteristics of a society is what members receive unequal amounts of benefits. Inequality can be explained in terms of differences in ability which results

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in performance that is differently rewarded. Examples of social benefits that are unequally distributed include;-

Control over one’s life circumstances

Managing the implications and consequences of social inequalities in a central concern for welfare institutions

Social welfare institutions have structures and activities which are organized structure of activities.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL WELFARE INSTITUTIONS.

Social welfare institutions are classified as follows;- Universal and residual

Formal and informal

Government and non governmental organization Universal social welfare institutions

This means that services go to those with who have a need or a social problem in other words a service is extended or provided based on the need or social problem.

Formal social welfare institutions

These are welfare institutions which are organized and a hierarchy of power structure Informal social welfare institutions

These are institutions that are restricted in communities or social group and offering a service is based on kinship and friendship which is in contrast with informal institutions which offers services based on problem or need assessment.

Government welfare institutions Purpose/objectives

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Normative value base Have a set of activities

They are classified differently and in different ways

Purposes

Social work institutions have both latent and manifest purpose. Latent purpose are those that are not seen or invisible while manifest purposes are those which can be put into practice. Latent purpose within welfare institutions include;-

Need to create employment and political institutions, manifest purpose on the other hand including helping people to function more effectively and also helping people to attain certain goals. Examples of manifest purpose include;-preventing an individual social break down through giving financial assistance inform of loans and grants.

Social control through provision of probation services and mental health facilities. NORMATIVE Value Base

These are values which guide social welfare institutions and they include the following; Human beings are valuables people in society of one another that is dependence among individuals.

Vulnerable groups such as children, women and physically mentally challenged people should be given special care since they can not withstand shocks of society.

People should be self sufficient that is to say should beself reliant and have capacity to provide for their needs

Professional help should be provided efficiently and effectively that is the main objectives should be met at a minimum cost.

People have a right of self determination within the frame work of one another’s right. Social work institutions see to it that they should encourage people to decide

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for themselves to put into account the rights of people around them. These institutions provide knowledge to enable them to make informed decisions.

Set of activities and structures

Social welfare institutions have organized structures of activities and origins. The activities include various people with different professionals that is social workers, lawyers, medical practitioners etc the helping organs include;-

Health units Nursing homes Day care centres

Education institutions

Questions

1. Discuss five manifest purpose of social welfare institutions. (20mks)

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TOPIC 5 METHODS OF SOCIAL WORK

Social work as a profession (where skills are emphasized rather than philanthropy, which is delivered daily.), has developed a particular way of approaching the clients, problems. This makes social work intervention to be well planned and organized. The methods include:

I. Social case work method

II. Social group work

III. Community organization

IV. Social action

V. Social research

1. Social case work methods

This is a method that deals with an individual face to face that is a social worker and a client. It is a method of measuring against reality and the client capacity to deal with it. Here the practitioner helps the client to clarify what problem is and enables him or her to look for different ways to solve the problems.

Elements of social case method

• Social case work is a method of helping people based on knowledge understanding and use of Techniques skillfully in helping clients to solving their problems

• Social case work is a scientific and individualized method that derives its

understanding from the disciplines of science and its methods are artistic

• It helps individuals in matters that involves external and internal issues ie emotional problems

• It combines both psychological and social elements Social case principles

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In helping process, the social worker must bear in mind the following principles:

I. Principle of individualization. Here a person is considered separately other than part of a group. A person is seen to be an original and very different from others. On using this principle, the social worker employ the following skills:

• Freedom from any bias against the individual

• Using knowledge about human behavior

• Having the ability to listen and observe the client

• Moving at the client pace

• Being empathetic that is the ability to understand another person’s feelings and experiences

• Keeping perspective that is helping the client to keep his or her emotions and be focused on the main issue

II. Principle of acceptance. Here we recognize that every individual has his or her own worth or value. It means taking a person with his congenial, ie strength and uncongenial ie weakness points or attitude. It means providing a forum through which this weakness can be discussed because condemning a client gives no room for discussing his problems or weaknesses.

III. Principle of controlled emotional involvement. It gives a restraint of the extend in which the social worker can let his or her own strong feelings such as love , fear or anger guide his or her as he or she listens to the feelings of the client. The principle ensures objectivity in the helping process and provides an element of security to the client e.g. if the client cries, you should not cry.

IV. Principle of non-judgmental attitude. It recognizes the basic fundamental right of the client not be critiqued for the circumstances he or she finds himself in. this discourages the idea of condemning the character of the person. This principle arises from the social work conviction not to assign levels of approval, guilt and innocence. Social workers are not allowed to impose their superego

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on the client. They need to look at things from the client’s perspective in order to understand the problem and help in solving it out.

V. Principle of purposeful expression of feeling. This is the recognition of the client need to show or make known his or her feeling, an opinion etc by words, looks or action especially his negative emotion. The social worker listens deliberately with a clear aim neither condemning nor discouraging these expressions. However the case worker stimulates these feelings especially when he realizes they can be useful. Social workers realize that feelings of an individual are a key to problem identification assessment and solution.

VI. Principle of confidentiality. Social workers must not share any information given by the client with anybody else. It must be kept private or as secret. It is the client basic right not to have the information about him or herself share by anybody else without his or her permission.

VII. Principles of client are right to self-determination. It arises out of the needs for the client to take part in the activities that would shape his or her own destiny. Case workers respect the client’s need to make their own decisions. Clients have the freedom to make a firm decision to do anything with the social worker having no rights to interfere.

2. Social group work

It basically means social work with more than one person. A group can be distinguished from a collection of individual because of the following characteristics:

Specific qualities of a group

I. Definable membership. Ie collection of two or more people that is identified by name or the purpose

II. Group consciousness: ie members think themselves as a group. They have a collective perception of unity and conscious identification with each other

III. Have a source of share purpose ie members have the same goal

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IV. Inter-dependency in satisfaction of needs ie members need the help of another to accomplish their purpose for which they joined the group

V. Aspect of interaction; in a group, a member interact and communicate with one another. They are likely to influence each other and react to another with a sense of community.

STAGES OF GROUP FORMATION

A group develops through various stages from its initiation to its termination. The stages can be outlined as:

a. Pre-affiliation

b. Power and control

c. Literacy

d. Differentiation

e. Separation

A. Pre-affiliation stage. Here members specialize on individual basis. The sense of unity is not strongly felt. during this stage,

• Group members are unwilling to assume responsibility

• They are unwilling to interact with one another and even support group activities

• Rapport is not strong

• There is a lot of suspicion among people

• Silence is common as members operate with separate individuals and are preoccupied with their own problems and feelings

• Members are fearful as regards responses of others to their expression in the sense of in adequate surrounding

• Members fear possible domination, isolation, rejection, segregation and hostility from other members

In this stage the social worker need to find out:

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✓ The expectations about the group that is will group objectives meet client needs?

✓ What kind of people opposes this group?what are their experience and background?

✓ What arrangement has been made to handle the group? Is everybody comfortable about the venue, resources available etc

B. Power and control stage. It’s transition stage. Members are moving from one state of relationship. Members must endure the ambiguity and turmoil of change from a non-intimate to an intimate system of relationship. Members stop thinking of their individuality and think about the group people. They revoke some sub-groups as they identify with the main group.

C. Intimacy stage. Here group members form familiar characteristics having endured hostility and conflicts. Here conflict fade and personal involvement between members intensify. Members come closer: there is growing recognition of significance of group experience. Members start identifying with group objectives and remain enthusiastic to group achievement. Mutual trust increase between members as they trust each other and acknowledge each other’s weakness. Members suppress their negative feelings for the sake of group progress. Sub group paves way for groups’ one-ness. There is a gearing conscience for the absent members

D. Differentiation stage. Here group members develop a sense of group identity and an internal flame of reference. Its characterized by:

✓ Tight group cohesion

✓ Group centered operation

✓ Dynamic balance between group and individuals involved

✓ Acceptance of personal experience

✓ Group adapting a name

✓ Movement of the group towards accomplishing of its purpose or objectives

✓ Not ignoring differences between members but careful considering them

✓ Encouragement of old members due to new activities

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✓ Members publishing their meetings and activities

E. Separation stage. Here the objectives have been achieved. Individuals are now able to strike a difference. Individuals evaluate their roles, members feel they have reached desired level of achievement

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

Social group work principles are formulated from a social workers’ perspective. They include:

I. Group workers role is to help the members or member of a group achieve a higher degree of social functioning

II. The group worker uses scientific methods ie fact finding through observation, analyzing in relation to the individual, the group as well as the social environment

III. The worker forms purposeful relationship with group members and the group.

IV. In group activity there is conscious use of self-image and disciple without loss of warmth and spontaneity

V. There should be acceptance of people (group members) without accepting all their behaviours but not necessarily condemning them

VI. You should start where the group is without imposing your own individual demands and expectations as a social worker

VII. There should be practice of individualization in that group. members should be helped to feel as a unique person who can contribute to the objectives of others and the group in general

PURPOSE OF SOCIAL GROUP

I. Achieving socially determined goals

II. Achieving desirable change for individuals experiencing personal, family, occupational and adjustment problems

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III. Achieving self-reliance of an individual

IV. Using a combination treatment which fulfill self enhancement and personal fulfillment through interacting with other people facing similar difficulties

MODELS OF SOCIAL GROUP WORK

a. Social goal model. Here group formation is determined by social influence. Also there is social gain to community members eg involvement in activities like building shelter

b. Remedial model. The main aim of the group is to support an individual. Change can take place in individual’s social, mental or physiological welfare. Groups use this model by encouraging means and appropriate modes of function. The model is mostly used in mental hospitals, prisons, rehabilitation and other centres.

c. Reciprocal model. It is based on the fact that there is always an interaction in nature between the individual and others in the social environment. Reciprocity expressed here is give and take ie resources must be available especially from government and other institutions. Individuals must use those resources to help themselves and the society. It serves both the individual and society and sees the individual largely as an abstraction that can be studied, understood and treated only in relation to the many systems and sub- systems of which he or she is part of. It views individuals as being created, influenced and modifies by his or her relationship with the social institutions and the inter-dependency between society and the individual.

Selection of group members

Group members can been selected based on:

I. Age. Chronological age seems to be less important in the early age group than the maturity of the individual.

II. Value system: some differences in value system can be tolerated and stimulate discussion in interaction. If differences are too great, whoever they may present problems. A group with more less common value can

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work together, whereas a group with extremely diverse values can be expected to run into difficulty and lose cohesion because of differences.

III. Common problem. Where by members have got a common social problem thus join hands to solve it

IV. Enjoyment patterns. Common interests, while not always of greatest important, can help to bring oneness among individuals. Groups find a common interest in activity. The base of interest can always be broadened and used to assist in better social adjustment in peer groups and in proper male and female identification.

V. Intelligence. Intellectual differences do not appear to be of prime important but where the extreme is great, difficulty may be encountered unless this factor is considered.

VI. Tolerance of structure

VII. Sex

VIII. Ego strength Structuring the group

Structure refers to arrangement organization or formation. Structuring aspect of group process includes:

• Setting

• Group size

• Rules and regulations

• Open or closed groups

• Time limit

• Meeting days and times

• Male female or mixed group

• Leadership

• First meeting

3. COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION METHOD

This is a method of working with the community as in totality.

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Dunhunt suggests that community organization is a conscious process of social interaction and a method of social work concerned with any role or all of the following objectives:

a) The meeting of broad needs and bringing about and maintaining adjustment between needs and resources in a community or other area.

b) Helping people to deal more effectively with their problems and objectives by helping them develop, strengthen and maintain qualities of participation, self- direction and corporation

c) Bringing about concepts in community and group relationships and in the distribution of decisions making power.

Other objectives in community organization include providing:

a) The community with an opportunity to mobilize its resources and to solve social problems and prevent their onset

b) Important means of interaction between segments of a community

c) Social welfare services to the community through the following services:

I. Development of social welfare plans

II. By effecting these plans

III. By sourcing forresources which include fund raising Essentials of a community:

1. Physical part: Territory, buildings, roads, streets and lawns. They constitute physical part of a community.

2. Means of production and employment: When people live together in the form of community, they must have some means of earning production and employment. They can become employee of a private firm, company, and government or have their own business.

3. Services: Water supply, electric supply, transport and communication, shopping centers, medical services, educational and health centers, recreational facilities. These all things people must have in community.

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4. Relationships: People of a community live in a network of relation, family, friendship circle, personal relationship etc. there are three types of relationships:

i) Primary ii) Secondary iii) Tertiary

1. Primary: Relationship is basic and natural, so relationship with parents is called primary relationship.

2. Secondary: Relations of individuals are less personal and no emotional attachment with one another. Their contacts are casual and not based on parental basis, e.g., when there is interaction between an employee and his employees or of a shopkeeper and a customer. They constitute a secondary relationship.

3. Tertiary: This relationship needs no physical relations. In case of tertiary relations, we know about a person through newspaper, radio or TV but we don’t have any personal contacts with him or her. So this is called tertiary relationship.

Principles of community development/organization

Following are the principles of community development:

1. Acceptance of community: The community organizer should accept the community and should act in a way that the community should accept him and if he has some problem, he should study that and contact the local leaders in this regards and then approach the community to the interest for the welfare of people in the community.

2. Understanding of felt needs and resources: The community worker should know the felt needs of the people and their resources and they should start work according to those felt needs. They should also explore available resources, which are available outside the community.

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3. Individualization: Community worker should always try to identify problems faced by some individuals and group and should repair special plans and programmes for them to make them participate with other groups or individual of the community. By this we mean that individual’s attention is also necessary for the community workers.

4. Self-determination: Community worker should provide full freedom to the local community to determine their needs and problems and resources act their own and should also give plans for their solution. He should encourage them in the planning for solution of these problems and should not impose his own views on them.

5. Freedom within limits: The social worker should guide the community and make them free in giving the ideas of all about the solution of the problems but in decisions should not close the limits to violate the interest of the group but the decision should be in the common interest of the community.

6. Empathy, not sympathy: Community worker’s attitude as also his approach towards work with the community should be non-judgmental. Whenever any decision is to be taken, it should be based on objective facts concerning community life and values cherished by the community, not by the worker.

7. Flexibility: The community worker should involve various members of the community in different matters and also delicate authority to them. The community workers should also be flexible to give rise to new leadership according to change situation.

8. Progress programme experience: All the programmes in the community should be evolutionary and not revolutionary. All the programmes chalked out by the community and should take in to consideration the local needs and problems with the involvement of people in the community.

9. People’s participation: The community worker should involve in the identification of all issues, problems, needs and resources and also development plans for this area. This participation should be from the first stage till final decision is taken.

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10. Good or meaningful relationship: The community worker should establish good relationship in the community. He should need all the groups and sub-groups of the community and should understand their problems. This would enable him to involve the community as long as he feels. They had developed capacity to lead as he deals at with their own felt needs and problems.

11. Mobilization: The community organizer should mobilize its all resources whether internal or external to avoid duplication of efforts. He should utilize these resources. He should also explore the talents and ability of different groups in the community. It is very necessary for the development of community.

12. Evaluation: The community worker should evaluate his work and people participation. He should also find out the various drawbacks and the groups between the various programmes of the community development. The purpose of the evaluation is to readjust you according to the change situation.

SOCIAL RESEARCH

Definitions:

According to P. K Young:

“Social research is the systematic method of discovering new facts, their sequence; inter relationships, casual explanations and social laws which govern them.” According to Webster:

“A studious enquiry usually critical and exhaustive investigation or experimentation having for its aim the revision of accepted conclusions in the light of newly accepted facts.”

According to CORDESCO:

“Research is systematic search for relevant information in a specific topic”.

According to LUNDBERG:

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“A method sufficiently objective and systematic to make possible classification, generalization and verification of the data observed.”

Importance of Social Research:

In the social research, we collect empirical data of facts through research. It is an organized effort to acquire new knowledge about various aspects of society and social issues. Its scope includes various methods of treatment, rehabilitation, identification of social needs and problems and knowledge about community resources.

Social planning would be ineffective without proper research, which enables the planners to access the needs of the community. It also helps them to refine social work techniques and methods used for solving social problems.

For the development of an area or even for personality development, it is necessary to get information and then on the basis of this information’s, we plan for the future. Social work is a problem solving method, so before getting into process to its solution, we must obtain important information regarding the issue that when, where, why, and how the problem started and to solve it. All these information can be collected through a process, which is called social research.

Social research is important for the following reasons:

1. It increases our knowledge about various issues especially on the basis on which we are doing social research.

2. Their conclusions based on research are more authentic or reliable.

3. It can be applied in all fields of human life because every field of human life needs some facts to meet every day problem and research provides factual data.

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4. Research gives us clear picture of a social problem because in order to solve any social problem, we need to have a clear picture of the e.g. what is the nature of the problem, how it emerges, how it is effecting the people, how many people have being influenced and how can we solve it.

5. Research is important for planning and evaluating certain programmes e.g. if you want to start social welfare programmes, you must collect relevant data from the people in order to find out their views about this programme. And if the attitude of the people towards this programme is positive then it should be introduced.

6. Social research enables social worker to make their programme more effective, useful and should help them to refine social work techniques and methods used for solving social problems.

7. Social research develops and discovers new facts and also verifies the old facts.

8. Research is helpful in the public relations programmes because in public relations, we know their problems, requirements, needs, priorities and their tastes.

9. Through research, we can evaluate our programmes and know the cause of its success and failure.

10. Through social research, we help the administration for streaming their priorities, (in the light of information’s we get through research) liking fixing of pay scale, cost of living, allowances and priorities of the locality etc.

Research Process

Like other social sciences, certain steps are required in the field of social work research too for conducting research on scientific lines. These steps are as follows: Selection of subject: On the basis of experience and available information, the research formulates the problem under study. It may be either a specific aspect or includes the total aspects of the problem. The problem selected should be relevant to the branch of social work where the researcher is going to study.

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Formulation of hypothesis: After selecting the problem, the researcher gathers certain ideas about the problem. This process is known as hypothesis. According to George Lundberg: “The hypothesis is tentative justification the validity of which remains to be tested.” In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be guess, imaginative ideas that becomes the basis for investigation.

Construction of a research design: For social work research, it is necessary to prepare a research design. The research design enables the worker to carry on his work systematically. The research should be formulated carefully and once the design has been prepared, it is easy to test the hypothesis, analyze data and take other steps.

Survey of literature related to the problem: Mere selection of problem is not sufficient. For proper understanding of the problem the worker has to survey the literature related to that problem.

Investigation and study of material related to the problem: No study is completed in self. There are various matters and topics related to the problem. For proper study it is necessary to investigate and study the material related to the problem. This investigation and study is helpful in taking the future steps.

Collection of data: After preparing the research design, the process of data collection is started. For this purpose, first step is the collection of data or facts pertaining to the problem.

Tabulation of collected data: Mere collection of data is not sufficient for research. For proper study of the problem, it is necessary that data should be systematically tabulated and classified. This step helps the worker to proceed in the right direction. Analysis and interpretation of data: Once data has been tabulated and classified, the worker proceeds to analyze and interpret it. On the basis of tabulation, the worker is able to categorize the data according to its characteristics. This makes the analysis and interpretation of data easy.

Verification of the problem and hypothesis: After analysis and interpretation of data, the researcher verifies the problem and the hypothesis. Without verification, it is not possible to arrive at any correct result.

Generalization: Once hypothesis has been proved to be correct as a result of

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verification, certain general principles can be laid down. These general principles are based on the results of the analysis and verification of the data scientifically tabulated and classified.

Types of social research:

There are two types of social research:

1. Pure research 2. Applied or Action research

1. Pure Research: To know or understand for the satisfaction of knowing or understanding the facts of our environment, their relationships or their implications without any application in view is called Pure Research. Pure Research is designed without reference to practical research. Pure research helps us in developing general principles and theoretical knowledge offers solutions to many practical problems.

2. Applied or action research: Applied research is action oriented and social workers are concerned with them. Science is a problem solving process. The science, which is capable of solving problem, is called Applied Research. In applied research, we design certain studies and then find out certain facts. It aims at developmental work i.e. the utilization of the intellectual knowledge towards economics or social ends.

Research/ survey techniques

Social work research is an indirect method. It is the process to investigate the issue/problem with more scientific way to fine answer to the question we raise, collect information and data. Social planning is in effective with out proper research. Research will enable the planner to asses and plan according to the need of an individual or community. Social research helps the social worker to modify the techniques and methods in solving different problems.

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In social work there are two type of research. Applied or action research

Pure research

Pure research is designed without reference to practical Social welfare administration

Every profession needs some skills and techniques to achieve certain goals. In the field of social welfare, we need effective services, e.g. the diagnostic, prevention and curative or rehabilitation.

For the readjustment of destitute person and all handicapped persons, various social welfare agencies render services for this purpose.

Task of Administration:

The task of administration is to implement the agency programme effectively and sincerely. Social welfare administration can be called a process of transforming social policies and objective into social action.

Administration is a group progress:

Basically the administration is essentially a group process and revolves round the people who are implementing the programme at different levels which means that this is the process of working with groups of people. The knowledge and skills of the people working in the agency, their qualities and capabilities, and their approach and attitude will determine the quality of the programme they are able to put through. The success of the agency programme is clear indication of the success of agency administration.

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Agency programme starts with General terms:

The programme of an agency is usually started with the general terms. These general terms are started in the form of certain given principles.

Gives definite shape to principles:

The administration is to give these principles a definite shape and work out the programmes in detail. This includes laying down procedures and polices, initiating programmes and supervising activities, keeping contacts and maintaining records and accounts. The administration tries to develop the skills of the individuals and staff in such a way to bring about improvement in the agency services given to the client.

Major aspects of Administration:

Following are the major aspects of administration:

1. Organizations and structure: It includes the head of administration and other staff members.

2. Policy making and planning: It includes the various procedures and programmes for getting the goals in a better way.

3. Programme Development: It includes the use of various methods and techniques to achieve these goals.

4. Function of the Executive boards: It shows the responsibilities of the individuals and every member in given some responsibilities and functions for which he is responsible.

5. Coordination: It is needed for the smooth functioning of an organization and for the checking of duplication and overlapping etc.

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6. Supervision: It is the duty of the good administrative to supervise all the activities going on under his administration, for this purpose he can nominate certain comities also.

7. Proper Budgeting: The good administrator has the quality of maintenance of the resources and the good budgeting. They have to look into available resources and expected expenditure of the programme and prepare the budget.

8. Maintenance of Proper record: In good administration, proper record keeping is given very much importance because it is very much needed for the smooth running of the programme. We know the present situation as well as the past situation and the plan for the future.

Importance:

To achieve certain goals, it is necessary that these programmes should be run in a way that we should get the good result in possible shorter time and the purposeful efforts. In which following are given: -

1. As we know that social welfare administration is a process of transforming social policies and objective in to social action. For this purpose effective services are needed to achieve the goal.

2. In the field of social welfare administration these ends include rendering of effective services in the shape of diagnostic, curative or rehabilitative and preventive measures, for the uplifts of the maladjustment, physically handicapped and destitute persons of the society.

3. Every social welfare agencies have their own objectives and services. Presently in Pakistan, there are about twenty thousand such types of NGOs providing services to the needy persons.

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4. The importance of social welfare administration has increased in welfare organizations. The following are some of the points which further show the importance of social welfare administration:

5. As social welfare has taken the form of organization actively for the solution of various social problems and in this connection the types of services provided by them are so complex that these agencies need coordination with other agencies also.

6. The success of programmes can only be ensured through good administration of social welfare agencies, which run on some sound and scientific lines.

7. As these programmes are very much complete in their nature so they need qualified and trained social workers to manage the affairs of agencies.

8. Social welfare administration having some knowledge regarding the principle of social worker’s sympathetic attitude towards the people and their experience in dealing with the person’s problems. For this purpose social worker is found a best administrator to achieve his goals.

9. Through social welfare administration, we easily gather the facts which identify the problems.

10. Through good administration, we can ensure the proper utilization of funds by a social welfare agency because the funds are utilized through effective methods with proper maintenance of accounts.

4. Social action

The term social action refers to organized and legally permitted activities designed to mobilize public opinion, legislation and public administration in favour of objectives believed to be socially desirable.

Methods of Social Action:

The following are some of the means, which make social action possible.

1. Research and collection of data

2. Planning solution, and arousing public opinion

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3. Meeting key persons, groups and agencies

4. Public meetings

5. Social education

6. Propaganda

7. Discussion

8. Enlisting public support

9. Coordinating the work of different groups and agencies

10. Presentation of the proposal to those in authority

11. Use of press if possible and meeting members of legislature

12. Social legislation

13. Enforcement of legislation

14. Case work

15. Process of social action (Steps in social research)

Stages of social action

First stage is of developing awareness among people of the problems and conditions, which limit social function as also of their causes. The tactics employed at this stage are of research and education. A social actionist, in order to find out facts relating to social reality so that sound conclusions may be arrived at, undertakes scientific social survey and research. After the knowledge of basic social issues confronting the life of people become available, it is disseminated to people in order to make them aware of these issues and problems. It is this stage that social actionists make use of various media, methods and techniques of communication to create awareness in the most effective manner.

Development of suitable organization with clear-cut roles and

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responsibilities is the second stage in the process of social action. It is at this stage that efforts are made by the social actionist to mobiles as also to develop leadership enjoying the trust and confidence of the people. Cooperation and representation are the main techniques employed by the social actionist at this stage that tries to establish contacts with different sections make his best efforts to enlist their cooperation and involves them in the organization, which is created for effecting the desired changes.

After the establishment of necessary organization comes the stage of formulation and projecting the goals and the strategies that are to be used for their effective attainment. In order to formulate goals, which should reflect the felt, needs of people, free and frank discussion with representatives of different sections in the organization is arranged and finally making suitable adjustments arrives at consensus.

The last stage in the social process is of actual action in which the joint action incorporating fullest possible cooperation of all concerned is mobilized in order to attain the stipulated goals.

Question:

1. Discuss how theattributes of group formation will determine the structure of a group for the group to achieve its objectives.

ODL ASSIGNMENTS –SUBMISSION DATE: 21^ST OCT. 2016

Assignment 1

I. Discuss the differences between social welfare and social work. (5mks)

II. Selection of group members is based on various criteria. Discuss any five of them (5mks)

III. Social workers have got some common skills and responsibilities that assist them when offering their services. Explain any five. (5mks)

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Assignment 2

I. Highlight five area where a social worker can work or rend his/her services (5mks)

II. A society is prone to a number of social problems. Highlight any five of them (5mks)

III. Discuss five importance of social work to the wider society. (5mks)

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Teacher: penina kaseu

socia policy and administration

lOMoARcPSD|32052913

Social Policy Administration Notes

social work (Egerton University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

UNIT TITLE: SOCIAL POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION

UNIT CODE: CED 1210

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION

Definition of terms Policy

A policy is a government decisions or executive order to institute change or modify behaviour to achieve objective targeted through particular programs designed to realize the desired objective or goal

Administration

Administration is a cooperative human effort towards achieving some common goals. The word administration has been derived from the Latin words ‘ad’ and ‘ministrate’ which means to serve. In simple language, it means the ‘management of affairs’ or ‘looking after the people’.

L.D. White (1948) views that, “the art of administration is the direction, coordination and control of many persons to achieve some purpose or objective.”

According to Herbert A. Simon (1960), “In its broadest sense, administration can be defined as the activities of groups co-operative to accomplish common goals.”

Social policy

Social policy is thus seen as ‘the set of systematic and deliberate interventions in social life…, to ensure the satisfaction of basic needs and the well-being of citizens. It is an expression of socially desirable goals through legislation, institutions and administrative programs and practices in accordance with specific development objectives’ (Aina 1999:73)

Decision

A decision is a course of action which is consciously chosen for achieving a desired result".

Decision-making Social services

Social service, also called welfare service or social work, any of numerous publicly or privately provided services intended to aid disadvantaged, distressed, or vulnerable persons or groups.

Social welfare:

Social welfare refers to conditions of social well-being when social problems are satisfactorily managed, social needs are met and social opportunities are created to meet the needs of individuals, families, groups and communities.

Social welfare services:

Services and programmes that are provided to meet social needs and create opportunities for people to realise their potential. In this document, such services include prevention and promotion; social assistance and social relief; protection; statutory social support; restorative, rehabilitative and therapeutic continuing care and reintegration; and aftercare services.

Social welfare administration

Social welfare administration is a process through which social policy is transformed into social services. It involves the administration of government and non-government agencies.

It is the process of transforming community resources into a programme of community services, in accordance with goals, policies and standards which has been agreed by those involved in the enterprise.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL POLICY

In order to understand the distinctive character of social policy as a subject, we need briefly to examine its roots and the way it developed in the UK.

Concern about questions of social policy grew throughout the nineteenth century. For instance, there was mounting concern about poverty and the squalid conditions that many people had to live in at that time, concern about child labour in mills, factories and mines, and concern about lack of literacy and the threatening power of the uneducated masses (see Chapter 3). Such concerns remain relevant to contemporary social policy with a focus upon problems and issues always at the centre of social policy debates.

As the end of the nineteenth century neared, it became increasingly clear to a growing number of reformers that government would have to play a much larger role than before in dealing with the social problems of the day. Although some of this concern was motivated by genuine and progressive aims to improve social conditions for ordinary people, it was mixed with other more controlling and reactionary motivations. These tensions about the role of the state still exist today, with discussions of the ‘nanny state’ and the welfare state often framed negatively.

The work of those who led the Charity Organisation Society (COS) is a good example of this mix of motivations and aims. The COS, set up to co-ordinate charitable efforts and to eliminate problems of charities duplicating one another’s work, became a highly influential advisory body in late Victorian and early twentieth-century Britain. For instance, several of its members, including Octavia Hill (see Chapter 11), served on a government commission on the reform of the Poor Law between 1905 and 1909.

In general, the COS and those who shared similar opinions were looking for a more efficient way of managing the existing system of poverty relief, rather than a radical overhaul of social policy

and the introduction of universal state benefits. The COS had pioneered the development of a new kind of occupation – the social caseworker – who was often a volunteer and often a (middle- or upper-class) woman. ‘Social workers’, as they gradually came to be known, were responsible for investigating the needs of poor families and for finding out whether they were ‘deserving’ cases. There was great concern among those who ran charities at the time that no one who was ‘undeserving’ should receive any help, because undeserved help would compound the character faults that were then thought to cause poverty and unemployment: laziness, ignorance, immoral behaviour and dependence. These concerns about laziness, dependency and distinctions between the deserving and undeserving remain ever present in contemporary social policy debates and often may bias many people’s views about the experience of inequality. Complete Activity 1.3 to reflect upon the experiences of inequality

Reference

https://www.mheducation.co.uk/openup/chapters/9780335246625.pdf

WHAT IS SOCIAL POLICY?

What is a policy?

A Policy can be considered as a "Statement of Intent" or a "Commitment".

What is a social policy?

Professor Marshall is more practical and down-to-earth: ' "Social Policy" is not a technical term with an exact meaning ... it is taken to refer to the policy of governments with regard to action having a direct impact on the welfare of the citizens, by providing them with services or income. The central core consists, therefore, of social insurance, public (or national) assistance, the health and welfare services, housing policy. Again, social policy is seen to be beneficent, redistributive and concerned with economic as well as non-economic objectives. Like many of the other definitions, social policy (as with economic policy) is all about 'what is and what might be'. It is thus involved in choices in the ordering of social change.

NB

Thus, social policy is that part of public policy that has to do with social issues. The Malcolm Wiener Center for Social Policy at Harvard University describes it as "public policy and practice in the areas of health care, human services, criminal justice, inequality, education, and labor." (Rittel & Webber,1973). Social policy often deals with issues which Rittle & Webber (1973) called wicked problems. Social Policy is also distinct as an academic field which focuses on the systematic evaluation of societies' responses to social need.

The classic examples of social policies are the activities of governments in providing money and services to their citizens in five main areas:

➢ Social protection benefits (often known as social security);

➢ Health services;

➢ Education services;

➢ Housing provision and subsidies;

➢ Personal social services.

The scope of social policy

These definitions point to the broad scope of social policy. They point to a broad understanding of the meaning of welfare, the broad responsibility for the achievement of welfare, the broad range of disciplines required for the analysis and development of social policy, and the interconnections between social policy and other areas of policy. While welfare may be interpreted in a narrow way, meaning the services that are provided to people who are in need, we take the broad definition articulated in the Alcock definition: ‘actions aimed at promoting social well-being’. Social well-being encompasses how individuals and groups fare in a range of domains or spheres of life, such as living standards (or material well-being), access to information, social participation, family relationships and overall life satisfaction (Western et al. 1995). In Part 3 of this book, we cover the key policy areas that contribute to the welfare of diff erent groups in these domains of life. We cover employment and wages, income support, housing, health, education, community services, and financing and taxation.

This broad definition of welfare also points to a shared responsibility for welfare. While social policy is mainly concerned about what governments do (public policy), it also covers the market and the operations of local communities, non-government organisations and families, as all infl uence social welfare. For example, the market affects social well-being through the production of goods and services and also through its capacity to provide employment at wage levels and conditions that provide reasonable living standards and quality of life. Also many human services are increasingly provided through the market, by private providers (for example, prisons and some aged-care services). Through self-help and the exercise of choice, individuals promote their

own living standards and usually those of other family members through sharing material resources and providing social and emotional support

Features of social policy

There are several different definitions of policy and social policy.

First, as already discussed, social policy has different meanings, including particular policies, areas of study or processes for action.

Second, social policy is more planned than random—it involves some kind of purposeful, intentional activity and often ‘authoritative choice’ (Althaus et al. 2007, p. 6). For example, the decision to introduce reform of family law and no-fault divorce in the early 1970s was not accidental. It arose from purposeful action to change laws seen to be out of step with changing values and the changed reality of marriage and separation.

Third, social policy is concerned about the welfare (or well-being) of individuals and groups in society.

Fourth, social policy is concerned with social relationships—the relationships between individuals, individuals and society, and between different groups in society. This is important because individual and social well-being is very dependent on the quality of relationships.

Fifth, social policy is concerned with both overall welfare and also about how welfare or well- being is distributed among different groups according to important facets of life, such as health, education, income and employment.

Sixth, social policy is concerned with the articulation of objectives and principles, and critically involves debates about values as well as action to achieve them. Different values and beliefs will mean there are different understandings about what constitutes welfare and also about how welfare is best promoted. The example of the continuing and changing debates about Medicare earlier in this chapter illustrate the role of debates about values—such as individual freedom, personal or social responsibility, and commitment to equality—in the development and analysis of social policy.

Seventh, the process of social policy involves not only rational analysis but also political contest about different values and the position of different groups. The analysis of social policy therefore requires an understanding of the power relationships within society and is informed by different theories about power and how it is exercised.

Nature and extent of social policy and administration

2.1 Social policy and administration is about the study of the distribution and organisation of welfare and well-being within societies. Its focus is on the ways in which different societies understand and meet the needs of their populations. The discipline is characterised by the following principles:

➢ the rigorous linking of theoretical analysis with empirical enquiry

➢ the identification and understanding of different value positions

➢ a willingness to engage with a range of intellectual traditions and social science disciplines

➢ the belief that students should acquire the skills and qualities which enable them to become active and informed citizens.

2.2 Social policy is an interdisciplinary and applied discipline which is concerned with analysing the distribution and delivery of resources in response to social need. The subject draws on ideas and methods from sociology, political science and economics, while also using insights from a range of disciplines including social anthropology, human geography, social psychology and social work. As a discipline in its own right, social policy studies the ways in which societies provide for the social needs of their members through structures and systems of distribution, redistribution, regulation, provision and empowerment. It seeks to foster in its students a capacity to assess critically evidence from a range of social science disciplines and to appreciate how social policies are continuously reconstructed and changed. Students will understand the contribution to these processes from those who come from different value positions and different social, cultural and economic backgrounds. They will also appreciate the fact that some social groups are more able to protect, alter or advance their value positions more effectively than others.

2.3 Social policy has a strong focus on those aspects of the economy, society and polity that are necessary to human existence and well-being. These include adequate food and shelter; a sustainable and safe environment; the promotion of health and the treatment of illness; the social, physical, environmental, educational and financial resources to enable individuals to lead independent lives and participate fully in their societies (while recognising the essentially interdependent nature of human existence).

2.4 In addition, social policy also focuses on wider structural and cultural issues. These include different approaches to social control, risk and regulation; poverty, inequality and exclusion; discrimination and empowerment; the role of beliefs and ideologies; policy-making and administrative processes, and the institutional composition of different welfare systems.

NB

Thus, social policy is that part of public policy that has to do with social issues. The Malcolm Wiener Center for Social Policy at Harvard University describes it as "public policy and practice in the areas of health care, human services, criminal justice, inequality, education, and labor." (Rittel & Webber, 1973). Social policy often deals with issues which Rittle & Webber (1973) called wicked problems. Social Policy is also distinct as an academic field which focuses on the systematic evaluation of societies' responses to social need.

The classic examples of social policies are the activities of governments in providing money and services to their citizens in five main areas:

➢ Social protection benefits (often known as social security);

➢ Health services;

➢ Education services;

➢ Housing provision and subsidies;

➢ Personal social services.

REFERENCES

Social policy, social welfare, and the welfare state (PDF Download Available). Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265156235_Social_policy_social_welfare_and_the

_welfare_state [accessed Jan 27 2018].

Objectives of Social Policy:

Some of objectives of social policy can be deduced as follows:

➢ Social policy aims at bringing about social change.

➢ To help in proper redistribution of social resources.

➢ To improve the quality of life of people and protect the weaker sections of the society.

➢ To eradicate poverty and generate employment opportunities.

➢ To develop human resources.

➢ To provide people’s participation in the development process.

➢ To minimize human suffering and maximize human welfare

Other objectives of social policy

1. Safety: To ensure the city residents' basic economic security; to protect them from fear and want; to guard their personal safety; to prevent abuse, abandonment, neglect, violence, and deprivation

2. Justice: To safeguard the lives and personal betterment of the disadvantaged; to assure the fair allocation of social resources; to bridge the gap between the rich and poor; to promote social justice

3. Dignity: To protect residents' social rights; to remove any service access obstacles; to provide client-centered services; to respect residents' self determination; to dissolve segregation and discrimination

4. Mutual Help: To encourage mutual help and cooperation, to facilitate supportive services to all families, to build hospitable and supportive communities

5. Development: To establish a synergetic and dynamic society, to enhance residents' sound development and adaptability, to create an environment that is good for the well-being of individuals, families, and the communities

6. Redistribution: In the Introduction we suggest that redistribution is a defining characteristic of social policy: ‘A social policy is defined as a deliberate intervention by the state to redistribute resources amongst its citizens so as to achieve a welfare objective.’ there is a sense in which this is always true. No government would intervene through policy if it believed that the existing allocation of resources was satisfactory. So social policy always involves changing what would have been the status quo. However, two kinds of redistribution are particularly important. First, there is redistribution away from those who have more to those who have less in order to create greater equality along a particular dimension such as income, or access to a key service such as education or health care. This is what is sometimes called the ‘Robin Hood’ function of social policy. This kind of redistribution is essentially driven by ethical and moral considerations to do with fairness and justice. There are many people who believe inequalities of income and wealth beyond a certain point are simply unacceptable and should be corrected through vertical redistribution from the richer to the poorer.

7. Social inclusion Social inclusion During the 1990s a growing number of social policies have been justified in terms of their capacity to reduce ‘social exclusion’. There is ambiguity about what social exclusion actually refers to (for good accounts see Levitas 2000 and Stewart and Hills 2005). It is what is known as a ‘contested term’. Some social policy analysts argue that it is just another word for poverty, but one that is preferred in a political context where governments are unwilling to be explicit about the existence of poor people. It suggests that as economies develop, some people become excluded from skills and knowledge and thus become vulnerable to unemployment and poverty. Policies are therefore needed to re-include such people, largely by giving them the skills that will get them into paid work.

Social policy, social welfare, and the welfare state (PDF Download Available). Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265156235_Social_policy_social_welfare_and_the

_welfare_state [accessed Jan 27 2018].

CONCEPT IN SOCIAL POLICY ADMINISTRATION

Social Policy and Administration is an academic subject concerned with the study of social services and the welfare state. It developed in the early part of the 20th century as a complement to social work studies, aimed at people who would be professionally involved in the administration of welfare. In the course of the last forty years, the range and breadth of the subject has developed. The principal areas relate to

➢ policy and administrative practice in social services, including health administration, social security, education, employment services, community care and housing management;

➢ social problems, including crime, disability, unemployment, mental health, learning disability, and old age;

➢ issues relating to social disadvantage, including race, gender and poverty; and

➢ the range of collective social responses to these conditions.

Social Policy is a subject area, not a discipline; it borrows from other social science disciplines in order to develop study in the area. The contributory disciplines include sociology, social work, psychology, economics, political science, management, history, philosophy and law (Spicker, 2007: Rahimi & Noruzi, 2011).

Social policy as social administration

In order to deliver the intentions that lie behind social policies in ordered and predictable ways, governments must set up procedures and sometimes organizations to carry them out. There is, indeed, often more difference between political parties over administrative arrange-ments than policy goals. Social policies generally use one of three main administrative forms to achieve their goals:

1. Regulation: This is generally the cheapest way for governments to achieve a social policy goal. Governments pass laws that require individuals and organizations to do, or not to do, particular things: wearing seat belts, observing food hygiene regulations, not selling tobacco to minors. There are likely to be many thousands of government regulations in an industrial society

that are intended to achieve broadly social goals. The main advantage from the state’s point of view is that regulation is relatively cheap. The cost of compliance falls on the individual or ◆ firms rather than on the state. The main cost to the state is some form of inspection and enforcement to ensure that people abide by the regulations.

2. Services in kind: This administrative method of achieving social goals provides services directly to people, such as healthcare, education, or housing. Governments can set up state organizations to do the job—large public bureaucracies like the National Health Service—or they can delegate the delivery of services to private-for-profit companies or to voluntary organizations (sometimes known as the not-for-profit sector).

3. Cash benefits: The third fundamental method of achieving social goals is to provide individuals and households with cash either directly or through reductions in the tax they would otherwise have to pay. The cost of cash benefits is the largest area of social policy expenditure in Britain, and has a whole chapter to itself in this book (Chapter 10)

Reference

Social policy, social welfare, and the welfare state (PDF Download Available). Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265156235_Social_policy_social_welfare_and_the_we lfare_state [accessed Jan 27 2018].

MODELS OF SOCIAL POLICY

MODEL A: The Residual Welfare Model of Social Policy

This formulation is based on the premise that there are two 'natural' (or socially given) channels through which an individual's needs are properly met; the private market and the family. Only when these break down should social welfare institutions come into play and then only temporarily. As Professor Peacock puts it: 'The true object of the Welfare State is to teach people how to do without it.'1 The theoretical basis of this model can be traced back to the early days of the English Poor Law, and finds support in organic-mechanistic biological constructs of society advance ed by sociologists like Spencer and Radcliffe-Brown, and economists like Friedman, Hayek and the founders and followers of the Institute of Economic Affairs in London.

MODEL B: The Industrial Achievement-Performance Model of Social Policy

This incorporates a significant role for social welfare institutions as adjuncts of the economy. It holds that social needs should be met on the basis of merit, work performance and productivity. It is derived from various economic and psychological theories concerned with incentives, effort

and reward, and the formation of class and group loyalties. It has been described as the 'Handmaiden Model'.

MODEL C: The Institutional Redistributive Model of Social Policy

This model sees social welfare as a major integrated institution in society, providing universalist services outside the market on the principle of need. It is in part based on theories about the multiple effects of social change and the economic system, and in part on the principle of social equality. It is basically a model incorporating systems of redistribution in command-over resources-through-time.

These three models are, of course, only very broad approximations to the theories and ideas of economists, philosophers, political scientists and sociologists. Many variants could be developed of a more sophisticated kind. However, these Social Policy approximations do serve to indicate the major differences - the ends of the value spectrum - in the views held about the means and ends of social policy. All three models involve consideration of the work ethic and the institution of the family in modern society. The three contrasting models of social policy represent different criteria for making choices. We analyse the implications of Model A in the next chapter and refer to it and the other models in a number of other chapters later in the book.

TOPIC 4

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

Decision-making is a mental process. It is a process of selecting one best alternative for doing a work. Thus, it is a particular course of action chosen by a decision maker as the most effective alternative for achieving his goals. According to D.E. McFarland, "A decision is an act of choice where in an executive forms a conclusion about what must be done in a given situation. A decision represents a course of behaviour chosen from a number of possible alternatives”. In the words of Haynes and Massie, "A decision is a course of action which is consciously chosen for achieving a desired result".

Hence decision-making is a typical form of planning. It involves choosing the best alternative among various alternatives, in order to realize certain objectives. A decision represents a judgement, a final word, and resolution of conflicts or a commitment to act in certain manner in the given set of circumstances. It is really a mental exercise which decides what to do.

Leaders must be able to reason under the most critical conditions and decide quickly what action to take. If they delay or avoid making a decision, this indecisiveness may create hesitancy, loss of confidence, and confusion within the unit, and may cause the task to fail. Since leaders are frequently faced with unexpected circumstances, it is important to be flexible - leaders must be

able to react promptly to each situation. Then, when circumstances dictate a change in plans, prompt reaction builds confidence in them.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DECISION MAKING

The essential characteristics of decision making are given below:

1. It is a process of choosing a course of action from among the alternative courses of action.

2. It is a human process involving to a great extent the application of intellectual abilities.

3. It is the end process preceded by deliberation and reasoning.

4. It is always related to the environment. A manager may take one decision in a particular set of circumstances and another in a different set of circumstances.

5. It involves a time dimension and a time lag.

6. It always has a purpose. Keeping this in view, there may just be a decision not to decide.

7. It involves all actions like defining the problem and probing and analyzing the various alternatives which take place before a final choice is made.

TYPES OF DECISIONS

Decisions have been classified by various authorities in various ways. The main types of decisions are as follows:

1. Programmed and non-programmed decisions: Professor Herbert Simon has classified all managerial decisions as programmed and non-programmed decisions. He has utilized computer terminology in classifying decisions. The programmed decisions are the routine and repetitive decisions for which the organization has developed specific processes. Thus, they involve no extraordinary judgment, analysis and authority. They are basically devised so that the problem may not be treated as a unique case each time it arises.

On the other hand, the non-programmed decisions are the one-shot, ill structured, novel policy decisions that are handled by general problem-solving processes. Thus, they are of extraordinary nature and require a thorough study of the problem, its in-depth analysis and the solving the problem. They are basically non-repetitive in nature and may be called as strategic decisions.

2. Basic and routine decisions: Professor George Katona has made a distinction between basic decision and routine decisions. Routine decisions are of repetitive nature and they involve the

application of familiar principles to a situation. Basic or genuine decisions are those which require a good deal of deliberation on new principles through conscious thought process, plant location, distribution are some examples of basic decisions.

3. Policy and operative decisions: Policy decisions are important decisions and they involve a change in the procedure, planning or strategy of the organization. Thus, they are of a fundamental character affecting the whole business. Such decisions are taken by the top management. On the contrary, operating decisions are those which are taken by lower levels of management for the purpose of executing policy decisions. They are generally concerned with the routine type of work, hence unimportant for the top management. They mostly relate to the decision-makers own work and behaviour while policy decision influences the work and behaviour of subordinates.

4. Individual and group decisions: Individual decisions are those decisions which are made by one individual – whether owner of the business or by a top executive. On the other hand, group- decisions are the decisions taken by a group of managers – board, team, committee or a sub- committee. In India, individual decision-making is still very common because a large number of businesses are small and owned by a single individual. But in joint stock Company’s group decisions are common. There are both merits and demerits of each type of decision.

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

The following procedure should be followed in arriving at a correct decision:

1. Setting objectives: Rational decision-making involves concrete objectives. So the first step in decision-making is to know one's objectives. An objective is an expected outcome of future actions. So before deciding upon the future course of efforts, it is necessary to know beforehand what we are trying to achieve. Exact knowledge of goals and objectives bring purpose in planning and harmony in efforts. Moreover, objectives are the criteria by which final outcome is to be measured.

2. Defining the Problem: It is true to a large extent that a problem well defined is half solved. A lot of bad decisions are made because the person making the decision does not have a good grasp of the problem. It is essential for the decision maker to find and define the problem before he takes any decision.

Sufficient time and energy should be spent on defining the problem as it is not always easy to define the problem and to see the fundamental thing that is causing the trouble and that needs correction. Practically, no problem ever presents itself in a manner that an immediate decision may be taken. It is, therefore, essential to define the problem before any action is taken, otherwise the manager will answer the wrong question rather than the core problem. Clear

definition of the problem is very important as the right answer can be found only to a right question.

3. Analyzing the problem: After defining the problem, the next step in decision-making is analyzing it. The problem should be thoroughly analyzed to find out adequate background information and data relating to the situation. The problem should be divided into many sub- problems and each element of the problem must be investigated thoroughly and systematically. There can be a number of factors involved with any problem, some of which are pertinent and others are remote. These pertinent factors should be discussed in depth. It will save time as well as money and efforts.

In order to classify any problem, we require lot of information. So long as the required information is not available, any classification would be misleading. This will also have an adverse impact on the quality of the decision. Trying to analyze without facts is like guessing directions at a crossing without reading the highway signboards. Thus, collection of right type of information is very important in decision making. It would not be an exaggeration to say that a decision is as good as the information on which it is based. Collection of facts and figures also requires certain decisions on the part of the manager. He must decide what type of information he requires and how he can obtain this.

4. Developing Alternatives: After defining and analyzing the problem, the next step in the decision making process is the development of alternative courses of action. Without resorting to the process of developing alternatives, a manager is likely to be guided by his limited imagination. It is rare for alternatives to be lacking for any course of action. But sometimes a manager assumes that there is only one way of doing a thing. In such a case, what the manager has probably not done is to force himself consider other alternatives. Unless he does so, he cannot reach the decision which is the best possible. From this can be derived a key planning principle which may be termed as the principle of alternatives. Alternatives exist for every decision problem. Effective planning involves a search for the alternatives towards the desired goal.

Once the manager starts developing alternatives, various assumptions come to his mind, which he can bring to the conscious level. Nevertheless, development of alternatives cannot provide a person with the imagination, which he lacks. But most of us have definitely more imagination than we generally use. It should also be noted that development of alternatives is no guarantee of finding the best possible decision, but it certainly helps in weighing one alternative against others and, thus, minimizing uncertainties.

While developing alternatives, the principle of limiting factor has to be taken care of. A limiting factor is one which stands in the way of accomplishing the desired goal. It is a key factor in decision making. If such factors are properly identified, manager can confine his search for alternative to those which will overcome the limiting factors. In choosing from among

alternatives, the more an individual can recognize those factors which are limiting or critical to the attainment of the desired goal the more clearly and accurately he or she can select the most favourable alternatives.

5. Selecting the Best Alternative: After developing alternatives one will have to evaluate all the possible alternatives in order to select best alternative. There are various ways to evaluate alternatives. The most common method is through intuition, i.e., choosing a solution that seems to be good at that time. There is an inherent danger in this process because a manager's intuition may be wrong on several occasions.

The second way to choose the best alternative is to weigh the consequences of one against those of the others. Peter F. Drucker has laid down four criteria in order to weigh the consequences of various alternatives. They are :

(a) Risk: A manager should weigh the risks of each course of action against the expected gains. As a matter of fact, risks are involved in all the solutions. What matters is the intensity of different types of risks in various solutions.

(b) Economy of Effort: The best manager is one who can mobilize the resources for the achievement of results with the minimum of efforts. The decision to be chosen should ensure the maximum possible economy of efforts, money and time.

(c) Situation or Timing: The choice of a course of an action will depend upon the situation prevailing at a particular point of time. If the situation has great urgency, the preferable course of action is one that alarms the organization that something important is happening. If a long and consistent effort is needed, a slow start gathers momentum approach may be preferable.

(d) Limitation of Resources: In choosing among the alternatives, primary attention must be given to those factors that are limiting or strategic to the decision involved. The search for limiting factors in decision-making should be a never ending process. Discovery of the limiting factor lies at the basis of selection from the alternatives and hence of planning and decision making. There are three bases which should be followed for selection of alternatives and these are experience, experimentation and research and analysis which are discussed below :

In making a choice, a manager is influenced to a great extent by his past experience. He can give more reliance to past experience in case of routine decisions; but in case of strategic decisions, he should not rely fully on his past experience to reach at a rational decision.

Under experimentation, the manager tests the solution under actual or simulated conditions. This approach has proved to be of considerable help in many cases in test marketing of a new product. But it is not always possible to put this technique into practice, because it is very expensive.

Research and Analysis is considered to be the most effective technique of selecting among alternatives, where a major decision is involved. It involves a search for relationships among the more critical variables, constraints and premises that bear upon the goal sought.

6. Implementing the Decision: The choice of an alternative will not serve any purpose if it is not put into practice. The manager is not only concerned with taking a decision, but also with its implementation. He should try to ensure that systematic steps are taken to implement the decision. The main problem which the manager may face at the implementation stage is the resistance by the subordinates who are affected by the decision. If the manager is unable to overcome this resistance, the energy and efforts consumed in decision making will go waste. In order to make the decision acceptable, it is necessary for the manager to make the people understand what the decision involves, what is expected to them and what they should expect from the management.

In order to make the subordinates committed to the decision it is essential that they should be allowed to participate in the decision making process. The managers who discuss problems with their subordinates and give them opportunities to ask questions and make suggestions find more support for their decisions than the managers who don't let the subordinates participate. The area where the subordinates should participate is the development of alternatives. They should be encouraged to suggest alternatives. This may bring to surface certain alternatives which may not be thought of by the manager. Moreover, they will feel attached to the decision. At the same time, there is also a danger that a group decision may be poorer than the one man decision. Group participation does not necessarily improve the quality of the decision, but sometimes impairs it. Someone has described group decision like a train in which every passenger has a brake. It has also been pointed out that all employees are unable to participate in decision making. Nevertheless, it is desirable if a manager consults his subordinates while making decision.

7. Follow-up the Decisions: Kennetth H. Killer, has emphatically written in his book that it is always better to check the results after putting the decision into practice. He has given reasons for following up of decisions and they are as follows:

i. If the decision is a good one, one will know what to do if faced with the same problem again.

ii. If the decision is a bad one, one will know what not to do the next time.

iii. If the decision is bad and one follows-up soon enough, corrective action may still be possible.

In order to achieve proper follow-up, the management should devise an efficient system of feedback information. This information will be very useful in taking the corrective measures and in taking right decisions in the future.

CHALLENGES OF DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

1. Lack of information/data - People lacks the right information to engage in thorough discussion of the decision options.

2. Uncertainty due to the environment

3. Lack of appropriate skills

4. Unclear ‘criteria’ for determining the best decision.

5. Lack of sufficient time for a comprehensive discussion

6. Lack of logical, relevant process/methodology that structures the steps of the decision-making discussion

7. People not clear about their level of decision-making authority regarding the decision. This leaves participants unsure as to how committed they should be in the decision-making process.

Others challenges

i. Incomplete Information:

This is a major problem for every manger. Lack of information leaves a manager adrift in a sea of uncertainty. Not only this, most decisions involve too many complex variables for one person to be able to examine all of them fully.

ii. Un-supporting Environment:

The environment—physical and organizational—that prevails in an enterprise affects both the nature of decisions and their implementation. If there is all round goodwill and trust and if the employees are properly motivated, the manager is encouraged to take decisions with confidence. On the other hand, under the opposite circumstances he avoids decision-making.

If subordinates have a stake in the decision or are likely to be strongly affected by it, acceptance will probably be necessary for effective implementation. On the other hand, subordinates may not really care what decision is reached. In such situations, acceptance is not an issue.

MODELS OF DECISION-MAKING

1. Rational Decision Making Model

This model, also known as "the rational comprehensive" model, is based upon the famous economic approach in which the ultimate goal of any action or change is maximizing the

efficiency of specific criteria by choosing the best option. This model is usually divided into 6 specific steps:

➢ Defining goals

➢ Recognizing alternatives

➢ Examining the consequences of each alternative

➢ Making decision based on the specific criteria

➢ Monitoring implementation

➢ Modifying the initial decision based on the feedback

This model is widely used by practitioners mostly because of its attractiveness and simplicity. This model offers a structured approach to address issue or opportunity and help managers reach the decision. This model overlooks any uncertainty and it is best suited for well-structured and simple problems in predictable industries. Based on its feature, the main application of this model is in technical environment where goals are accurately defined and there is an agreement on the criteria and measurement of goals. For instance, NASA uses the rational model since engineering factors, procedures, and goals are relatively clear and less ambiguous. This model is difficult to use in the organizations which operate in dynamic and political environment. The issues and opportunities in the dynamic environment are complex, therefore the unmanageable number of possible options should be considered before making decisions in this approach.

In addition, the existing complexity and uncertainty in the dynamic environments would also decrease the confidence of the decider in evaluating different alternatives.

2. Bounded-Rationality or Behavioral Model

Herbert Simon, Nobel Laureate, criticized the rational decision making approach and introduced the concept of "bounded rationality" (5-4). According to this concept: Humans cannot make fully rational decisions mainly because they can process and consider a little amount of data at the moment.

Expertise, information, and time in each situation are limited; therefore the comprehensive analysis is very hard and almost impossible in most cases.

Humans can not consider and recognize all possible limitations and constraints of an issue, thus not all of the possible alternatives are analyzed in the rational decision making process.

In real world, considering the rational limitations the managers usually simplify the problem and restrict themselves to just several main options. Decision makers usually identify a few numbers of criteria and usually assess the options that have worked for their organization or other similar companies before. Unlike the rational model, the behavioral model does not address just one best solution for a problem. The advocates of this theory believe that managers based on the factors

such as managers' characteristics, organization's situation, and other factors can find various solutions for their problems. Simon asserted that since all the information is not available for a decider, the managers who use the bounded-rationality model, unlike rational model, seek "satisfaction" for their problems and not "maximization". (Simon) In other words, this model shows a decider the "good enough" options to meet minimum selected criteria at the decision making time. In this model, the "criteria weighting" plays an important role in making ultimate decision.

3. Bargaining Model

The main application of this model is in the situations where two or more parties engaging in the decision may have conflict of interest. The representatives of the organizations should learn and know the principles of negotiation. Senior managers select this approach in the strategic decisions which involve tradeoff between different organizations or between different parties within the organization. In this model, the managers or negotiators seek the mutual benefits or common interests to maximize the chance of reaching to the appropriate decision. The resulting decision should be acceptable by all the involved sides.

The bargaining model is highly used in politics mainly because in this context many active parties are fed from the same financial and non-financial resources and these resources are limited. However, some argue that using bargaining model in politics can lead to distribute power equally that consequently decrease the effect of power which is sometimes essential in the society, organization, and other communities. The bargaining model is useful for getting multiple views before making decision; and it can help managers make the more sustainable decision.

The bargaining model gives each party involving in the decision a position for reflecting their interests. Bargaining model pays a great deal of attention to the competitors and their actions in decision making process. One of the disadvantageous of this model is its time consuming feature in some cases since parties try to resolve disagreements. Although the interests of all parties are relatively considered in the negotiations, the wishes of the most powerful sides are more likely to be met than needs and wishes of the least powerful parties. In practice, some managers exclude some parties from bargaining model for getting agreements more quickly and saving time, but this approach threatens the success of the resulted decision since some parties may not support the actions pertaining to the decision. To sum it up, the larger pool of participants in bargaining decision making model leads to better yet more time consuming decisions.

4. Participative Decision Making Model

The bargaining decision making model is expanded and formed the participative decision making model. The participative decision making model tries to bring all the people who directly influenced by the decision into decision making process. This model is known as the most democratic decision making process. However, the participation of people in the process of decision making in this model plays just the "consultation" role and not "deciding" role. In other

words, this model provides people the opportunities to bring ideas and information to the table but they do not have real decision making power. Any stakeholder group within the organization may have its own agenda and interests to pursue; therefore in this model, the stakeholders are encouraged to present their key concerns before decisions are made. It is worth mentioning that stakeholder groups are sometimes strong enough to hinder the process of decision making if they are not included in the process of decision making. Participative decision making model can be seen in NATO, United Nations, and other global bodies.

The major disadvantages of participative decision making model are its expensiveness and slowness. Information in this decision making model act as double-edged sword, while the information from different perspectives can clarify various aspects of the issue, the huge amount of unstructured information is somehow a problem for managers. For having successful participative decision model, participants should try to subordinate their own interests in pursuit of common objectives.

5. Garbage Can Model

According to Cohen, March, and Olsen, many decisions are made based on unorganized interactions of agents and opportunities, chance, and the current available human skills and other resources within the organization. (25) This model implies that organizations and managers have dynamic, ill-defined, and inconsistent preferences, and organizations are run on a basis of trial and error. Stakeholders partially understand the processes in the organization, and the deciders act randomly and impulsively. Based on the illustrated framework, Cohen et al. argued that managers within the organizations think of many solutions when they have not faced problems yet. They keep these solutions and use them when the problems occur within the organization. They asserted that: "decisions are dumped in a holding can - the garbage can for future use." (Refr)

Managers use garbage can model in highly ambiguous environments which called structured anarchies. Cohen et al. argued that deciders are as likely to identify their goals through actions as they are to discover them prior to decision. In addition, they argued that due to existing organized anarchies within the organization some technologies used in the organizations are unclear. Moreover, they argued that managers have loose understanding of goals and means at the beginning. Cohen et al. argue that organizational participants learn through trial and error actions without understanding the causes. They also argued that in most cases the decision making participants come and go into the process constantly and their involvement vary because of their interest, energy, and time (Cohen et al., 1972). Thus, it's very difficult to recognize who will actually participate in a decision (Cohen et al., 1972). The garbage can model introduces four streams of randomness: 1) randomness in opportunities 2) solutions 3) participants 4) problems. Therefore, the decision making process is full of randomness and the resulted decision can be selected randomly. Summarily, Cohen and his colleagues argued that decisions are not the outcome of rational analysis or coalition of powers but rather random events. On the other hand,

some scholars argue that garbage can model does not offer a theoretical framework and this is its main disadvantageous and cannot be widely used in real world.

In addition to the mentioned decision making models, the researchers introduced some other models that such as incremental and polis models.

POLICY MAKING HOW IS POLICY MADE

Policy is generally made by government or initiated by government. Policy development and decision-making, however, involves a complex interplay of interests and expertise between:

➢ Ministers

➢ Key civil servants in government departments

➢ Politicians/political interests.

The beliefs or ideology of political parties in government determine whether a government is sympathetic to particular policy changes/ developments. Political party manifestos shape the programmes for government, which provide the overall policy framework for each new government, a wide range of diverse interest groups, e.g. local or regional interests, international corporate interests, non-governmental organizations(NGOs), small and big business, cultural and religious interests.

The policy development and decision-making process also often engages semi-state agencies, local authorities/government, the social partners, expert working groups, and consultative, advisory and monitoring bodies established by government. Influencing decision-making successfully involves working with many of these different groups.

THE POLICY CYCLE

The policy formulation process typically includes an attempt to assess as many areas of potential policy impact as possible, to lessen the chances that a given policy will have unexpected or unintended consequences. Because of the nature of some complex adaptive systems such as societies and governments, it may not be possible to assess all possible impacts of a given policy.

(a) Policy design and formulation

Policy can be designed for a range of reasons, e.g. to give substance to a vision, to introduce reform, to deliver better quality services, to bring a country’s social or environmental policy into line with that of the world. Policy making usually begins when people perceive that a problem

exists. Perceptions about a problem may emerge from the media, politicians, organizations and interest groups in civil society, or the institutions of government.

Next, ideas are formulated on how best to resolve the problem and a discussion process is initiated which can be formal and structured, i.e. through the parliamentary process (e.g a discussion document called a Green Paper), or conducted through media debate or a consultation exercise.

In this process, there are likely to be differences of opinion over what should be done about a particular problem and who should do it. How to deal with crime, for instance, is a case in point. There have been very many differing and conflicting views on the type of policies that should be developed by government to address crime and the underlying problems. Different interests try to persuade government to adopt their ideas and put their solutions into practice. The process of shaping public policy usually involves efforts by competing interest groups to influence policy makers in their favour. Frequently, alternative proposals emerge.

The entire process normally involves different interests collecting and analyzing data, consultation with key stakeholders, assessing consequences of alternative actions, and gathering support for one proposal or another. If government leads the process, it then makes a decision on adopting the policy and putting it into practice.

Sometimes the government minister with responsibility for the policy area in question may set up a commission, an expert advisory group or a task force, supported by civil servants, to undertake the policy design and formulation process. The minister will receive a report and recommendations from the committee when the work is completed. The minister will report to the Cabinet who will consider her/his recommendations. Then the government, in cabinet, will make a decision on adopting the policy and putting it into practice.

If the policy-making process is being led from outside government, the interest group or body proposing the policy, once it has agreed on an appropriate course of action, must persuade the appropriate government or governmental agency to adopt the policy and, of course, have the policy implemented.

With regard to the overall policy-making process, it is important to acknowledge that a decision by a public body ‘to do nothing’ is also a policy decision.

The policy-making process

1. Problem identification and agenda setting: in which policy problems are defined and the policy agenda set. Here it is acknowledged that public problems will only reach the political agenda if they are converted into political ‘issues’. This usually occurs when an interest group

demands government action on a problem, or when there is public disagreement over ways in which a problem should be addressed.

2. Policy formation: it is the stage in which policies are created or changed. Policies are products of the political context within which they are developed. It is useful to understand policy formation as a social and political process in order to conceptualize how policies are formulated.

3. Policy Adoption: it is the stage when the policy is enacted, or brought into force, for example, by state or federal legislation. New or changed public policies are often adopted by means of a decision of the cabinet, or indeed of an individual minister, without any legislative change.

4. Policy implementation: it includes the actions and mechanisms whereby policies are brought into practice, that is, where what is written in the legislation or policy document is turned into a reality. In this stage the content of the policy, and its impact on those affected, may be modified substantially, or even negated. In analysing this stage in the policy-making process, one needs to examine how, when and where particular policies have been implemented.

5. Policy evaluation: it is the final stage in the policy-making process, includes monitoring, analysis, criticism and assessment of existing or proposed policies. This covers the appraisal of their content, their implementation and their effects. Moreover, evaluation is designed to help governments to implement policies in an effective and efficient manner. (

Factors influencing social policy making process

A number of factors and considerations must be kept in mind during policy development. These factors influences the types of policy made and implemented.

1. Public interest: What is in the best interest of society as a whole? How is the common good balanced against any private or special interests? Is the process fully inclusive, especially of those who are often overlooked or unable to participate?

2. Effectiveness: How well a policy achieves its stated goals? Efficiency: How well resources are utilized in achieving goals and implementing policy.

3. Consistency: Degree of alignment with broader goals and strategies of government, with constitutional, legislative and regulatory regime.

4. Fairness and equity: Degree to which the policy increases equity of all members and sectors of society. This may link directly to consideration of public interest.

5. Reflective: Of other values of society and/or the community, such as freedom, security, diversity, communality, choice, and privacy.

Other factors influencing policy making

The impact of social policy on the population

For social policy to be effective, decision makers must consider the impact their policies will make on the community. This makes perceived social impact a key factor in the development and implementation of social policy.

Poverty and Social Impact Analysis (PSIA) is one popular approach for determining the social impact of social policy on a population, according to the World Bank Group. This analysis method focuses on the expected impact of social policy on vulnerable groups like the poor. It can use qualitative or quantitative research methods and be performed before, during, or after social policy reform.

People have the power to shape social policy

While the research of academics matter, it would be erroneous to suggest decision makers don’t consider the will of the people when developing and implementing social policy, according to Reset. Both individuals and advocacy groups, like nonprofit human service organizations, may voice their views to shape social policy, according to Jiahuan Lu, the author of “Organizational or Social Benefits? The Progressiveness of Policy Advocacy in Nonprofit Human Services Organizations.”

Public perceptions shape social policies

Both policymakers and people advocating for change have perceptions and biases that inevitably shape social policies. At the conference “Speaking the Unspeakable: A Conversation on Colorblindness, Racism, and Antiracism” held in Arizona in February 2017, keynote speakers George Yancy and Lara Gomez explained how language surrounding race informs social policy.

The state of the economy influences social policies i.e economic resources and tax revenues available and budgetary priorities.

Institutional factors: Government’s administrative capabilities to develop and implement social programs and maintain balance in federal, state and local jurisdiction.

Social factors: Changes in social environment that shape policy. Ex: war, immigration, demographic factors, industrialization, urbanization, etc.

Legal factors: Influence of constitutional provisions and Judiciary both creates new and reshapes old social policy; negates policy; establishes procedural policy. Political Factors

The political process encourages or discourages expansion of public obligation-policy is enacted, defeated or the issue is not given political consideration.

NB

Generally, the policy in force at a particular time and place is influenced by the following factors: circumstances such as technological developments, population increases and urbanization of the population, crisis, natural disasters, war and depression, international relations, economic and industrial development; public wants and needs; policies of political parties; activities and representations of interest groups; personal views of political office – bearers as well as views and experience of expert public officials, research and investigations

POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

Policy making and policy implementation is not the same thing. Good policy making will consider and define the systems, the structures and the processes that need to be put in place to effectively implement the decision of government. It will define and outline the budget and resources that will be required to implement the policy. It will define and establish the targets to be achieved and indicate a timeframe for achieving the targets.

It will also establish a monitoring system and indicate review dates to evaluate the effectiveness of the policy in practice. This will ensure that the outcomes as intended by the policy makers are being delivered upon.

What is Policy Implementation?

Mazmanian and Sabatier (1989) on the other hand, refer to policy implementation as the translation of policy prescriptions to goals and actions that address procedures, capacity and behaviour need to initiate and sustain the policy intended objectives.

Policy implementation is the operationalization of policy into program, projects, activities and outputs. Mazmanian and Sabatier also argue that policy implementation refers to the process of converting financial, material, technical and human input into outputs (Mazmanian and Sabatier, 1989).

Policy implementation involves translating the goals and objectives of the policy into operating, on-going program. To achieve this state, the process needs three crucial elements, namely:

➢ Creation of agency or assignment of responsibility to an agency to implement a policy;

➢ Translation of policy goals into operational rules and development of guidelines and effecting of programs; and

➢ Coordination of resources and personnel to achieve intended policy goal (UNESCO, 2009).

Represents the stage where government executes an adopted policy as specified by the legislation or policy action. At this stage, various government agencies and departments, responsible for the respective area of policy, are formally made responsible for implementation.

➢ Policy implementation is what happens after a bill becomes law.

➢ Policy implementation is the stage in the policy process where policy action occurs to address a recognized policy problem.

➢ At this stage, the design of a policy proposal is put into effect.

➢ Policies are executed by respective administrative agencies.

➢ Selected instruments are applied reflective of the legislative mandate, bureaucratic interpretation, and capacity.

➢ Specified target populations, and the society, experience the first tangible effects of the policy once implemented.

NB: Once the government has legitimized some form of public policy such as a law, statute, edict, rule, or regulation, the stipulations of that policy must be put into action, administered, and enforced to bring about the desired change sought by the policy-makers. This task defaults to the government executive and necessitates the designation of a government agency as having the responsibility for the new policy. Theoretically the responsible agency is given the requisite resources and authority to ensure that the new policy is carried out as intended, but in reality, this does not always occur. As discussed earlier, public policy is implemented to effect some change in the behavior of a target population and it can normally be assumed that this change will ameliorate some public problem. Therefore, it stands to reason that unless the stipulations of a given policy are actually carried out, the problem will persist.

Why Policy Implementation Matters

1. Effective and efficient policy actions require consideration to be given to the constraints and challenges of implementation—preferably even as the policy is formulated.

2. How well a policy is implemented has much to do with determining if it is successful or not! Regardless of how well intentioned, or how well formulated, or how universally supported in the adoption phase of the policy process, a public policy cannot begin to change the behavior of a target population or solve a specific public problem until someone or some organization implements the policy. Ideally, each policy includes a design of how a public problem will be resolved. This design will define, in varying detail, the goal(s) of the policy, the set of policy

instruments to be used, the agency responsible for implementation, possible timetables, and the target population.

Factors affecting implementation of policies

1. Natural calamities –floods, drought

2. Political instability

3. Time (inadequate time)- change expected too soon

4. Resources (insufficient resources)

5. Low budgetary allocation

6. Lack of other combination of resources e.g. health centers lack doctors, drugs

7. Poor problem identification (bad policies).Poor understanding of the problem to be solved.

8. Lack of understanding between implementers and policy makers and clients

9. Lack of a specified sequence of task

10. Change in national economic policies

11. Over dependency of policy to donors/agency

12. Change in international prices - Change in government

13. Political influence

Challenges of social policy implementation

1. Lack of policy clarity and consistency of policy objectives are among the major challenges or barriers to policy implementation. Policy objectives are often broad and tend to be expressed in relatively vague terms, encompassing ill-defined attitudinal and behavioural targets. Because of their vagueness, policies as well as their objectives exhibit a surface consistency since they are not sufficiently detailed to point where inconsistencies might exist. The more general the language used to express the policy objective, the easier it is for groups with diverse and conflicting interest to support it. This raises major challenge to achieving policy objectives (Mazmanian and Sabatier, 1989).

2. Policies coordination challenges

The major challenge in policy implementation particularly in developing countries is the widening gap between the intentions and the results. This scenario provokes memories of ‘good’ ideas that did not work and places the blame on the policy formulators and administration teams (Hanadle, 1979).

Policy implementation often turns out to be the graveyard of policy where the intentions of the designers of policies are often undermined by a constellation of powerful forces of politics and

administration in cooperation of the people. Little attention is paid to the subject of policy implementation by policy decision makers who often take it for granted that once policy is adapted by government, it will be implemented and the desired goals achieved (Egonmwan, 1971).

3. Poor monitoring: The lapse in the follow-up to policy implementation results to poor implementation and gives rise to implementation gap and ultimately policy failure as a result of a sizeable gap between the policy decision and its implementation. The intended policy decisions and goals are either diluted or poorly achieved

4. Lack of involvement in policy development is a serious challenge to policy implementation: Policy document are usually prepared by bureaucrats with little or no input from the implementer and other stakeholders who will be impacted either negatively or positively by the policy. At times, policy instruments are prepared and stakeholders asked to provide comments on the draft regulation or policy document. This makes it difficult for the stakeholders to own both the policy and the implementation process (Spratt, 2009).

5. Poor implementation: There can be sharp distinction between formulating a policy and policy implementation. Despite implicit awareness that such distinctions exist, the assumption in government is that once the government has produced policies, it up to those working at the periphery to implement it. Failure of policy implementation is therefore regarded as being a result of bad execution and not a bad policy (Pfeffer, 1992).

6. Perception of culture as open and implementable by all affects the formulation and implementation of policies. The process of policy formulation and implementation requires research and persistency. Lack of placing adequate value on culture discourages the use of resources for formulation and implementation of related policies (Tan et al, 2010).

6. Other challenges that face policy implementation include formulation of policies that are not forward- looking, policies that do not take into account global trends and practices, policies not taking into consideration local economy, demographic challenges, globalization and technological advances as well as urbanization and climatic changes. (Tan et al, 2010).

POLICY EVALUATION

Policy evaluation can be better defined as a process by which general judgments about quality, goal attainment, program effectiveness, impact, and costs can be determined. Theodoulou and Kofinis, 2004, p 192)

Monitoring, reviewing and evaluating policy and its implementation is crucial to ensuring that the outcomes are consistent with those intended by the policy makers. Reviews area way of keeping current issues central and introducing new concerns. Policy reviews and evaluations are intended to provide lessons for an improvement in the implementation process and to influence new policy formation.

The context framing a particular policy initiative can alter dramatically during the period of implementation. A review can point to the need to refocus objectives to produce better results from investment or establish higher-level targets and expectations from the implementation of the policy.

Once public policy has been operationalized through the formal adoption of laws, rules, or regulations, and the bureaucracy has taken action to implement the policy, some form of evaluation needs to be accomplished to determine if the policy has achieved the desired outcome or impact. Public policy represents the expenditure of limited public resources and or restrictions on certain types of individual or organizational behavior. Consequently, the public has a right to expect that their government officials are accountable for the validity, efficiency, and effectiveness of those policies. Policy evaluation is therefore an absolutely critical stage in the policy process whereby it can determine whether a policy’s effects are intended or unintended and whether the results are positive or negative for the target population and society as a whole (Theodoulou and Kofinis, 2004, p. 191). In essence, policy evaluation is the process used to determine what the consequences of public policy are and what has and has not been achieved.

The consequences of such policy programs are determined by describing their impacts, or by looking at whether they have succeeded or failed according to a set of established standards. Several evaluation perspectives are:

o Evaluation is the assessment of whether a set of activities implemented under a specific policy has achieved a given set of objectives.

o Evaluation is the effort that renders a judgment about program quality.

o Evaluation is information gathering for the purposes of making decisions about the future of the program.

o Evaluation is the use of scientific methods to determine how successful implementation and its outcomes have been.

DEFINITION POLICY CHANGE AND TERMINATION

One of the main reasons for doing policy evaluation in the first place is to determine the difference between policy goals and objectives and the subsequent impact that a given policy as

implemented has achieved, and then to do something about it. There are essentially three options: maintain the status quo if the policy is working as planned; make adjustments to the policy, in other words make changes; or the most drastic, and rare, change of all is to terminate the program or repeal the policy. When a policy is replaced or modified in some respect or repealed in parts, then policy change has occurred. Policies are rarely maintained exactly as adopted. Change inevitably starts to occur as soon as a policy is implemented because of the intrinsic ambiguity of legislation. Thus, policies are constantly evolving and the policy cycle is an ongoing dynamic process (Theodoulou and Kofinis, 2004, p. 202). Of course, these options represent apolitical motivations. Once politics is added to policy change or termination dynamic then a whole host of policy actor motivations can once again be seen as attempting to influence the ultimate outcome of policy.

It is important to understand that policy change does not occur in a vacuum. Proposed changes will essentially go through some variation of the preceding six stages of the policy process: problem identification, agenda-setting, policy formulation, policy adoption, policy implementation, policy evaluation and then once again back to the policy change or termination stage in a nearly never ending cycle.

What is Policy Change

➢ Once a policy has been implemented it becomes prey to all sorts of political realities and dynamics that constantly affect and shape how the policy is viewed as time passes.

➢ When a policy is replaced or modified in some respect or repealed in parts, then policy change has occurred.

Policies are formulated, adopted, implemented, evaluated, reformulated, and reimplemented, and the cycle continues.

Factors Necessitating Policy Change

Reasons for Policy Change

o Changes in societal dynamics

o New policies may contradict or invalidate an existing policy.

o The legality or constitutionality of a policy is challenged.

o Technological changes alter the feasibility or relevance.

o New discoveries or revelations alter public support.

o Economic and political conditions change.

o Power shifts due to election results.

o The problem is solved.

o Implementing agencies may lack the skill to manage the policy.

o Once implemented, policy defects become apparent.

o Target groups refuse to comply with or mobilize against the policy. (Theodoulou and Kofinis, 2004, pp. 201-202)

Policy change and termination are both troublesome endeavors for government. Policies are developed to address certain problems or issues: however, they rarely do so and are often perceived to have failed although it is far more common for policy to change than to be terminated (Theodoulou and Kofinis, 2004, p. 209).

Why Policy Termination is Rare

➢ Organizations desire to survive.

➢ The creation of new goals helps legitimize the organization's continued existence.

➢ Some programs must exist because of current laws (i.e., public education). · It is often cheaper to keep a program going than it is to terminate it.

(Theodoulou and Kofinis, 2004, p. 206)

Reasons for Policy Termination

➢ The policy is no longer effective.

➢ The need for the program no longer exists.

➢ Budgetary requirements force the end of the policy or program.

➢ An evaluation study makes the case that the policy is unsatisfactory in impact or outcome.

➢ The political environment may no longer support the goals of a policy.

➢ Some policies or programs are terminated purely for ideological reasons.

Summary

Once the government has legitimized some form of public policy such as a law, statute, edict, rule, or regulation, the stipulations of that policy must be put into action, administered, and enforced to bring about the desired change sought by the policy-makers. As discussed in the first four lessons of this course, public policy is implemented to effect some change in the behavior of a target population and it can normally be assumed that this change will ameliorate some public problem. Regardless of how well intentioned, or how well formulated, or how universally supported in the adoption phase of the policy process, a public policy cannot begin to change the behavior of a target population or solve a specific public problem until someone or some organization implements the policy.

Frequently, the political give-and-take of the various policy actors in the policy process prevents a thorough understanding, and all too often a misidentification, of the true public problem at hand. Unfortunately, as solutions are developed in the policy formulation stage, improper or inadequate policy instruments are proposed that will have little if any impact. Consequently, policy-makers must be extremely cognizant of the fact that the ills of poorly designed policy cannot be miraculously healed by administrative agencies as they attempt to interpret and implement imperfect legislation.

As is the case with all of the stages of the policy process there are a number of institutions and actors who are involved with policy implementation. Some of these participants are directly engaged in the actual administration and implementation of policy while others attempt to influence the direction that public policy will take as a result of how it is administered and implemented. Administrative agencies represent the former while the president, the Congress, the courts, and whole host of interest groups represent the later. The bureaucracy is delegated a significant degree of power during the implementation stage of the policy process. The implementation stage of the policy process is by definition an operational phase where policy is actually translated into action with the hope of solving some public problem. However, there are several impediments to successful policy implementation and they include:

SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICES

Welfare

Welfare is an ambiguous term, used in three main senses:

➢ Welfare commonly refers to 'well-being'. In welfare economics, welfare is understood in terms of 'utility'; people's well-being or interests consist of the things they choose to have.

➢ Welfare also refers to the range of services which are provided to protect people in a number of conditions, including childhood, sickness and old age. The idea of the 'welfare state' is an example. This is equivalent to the term 'social protection' in the European Union.

➢ In the United States, welfare refers specifically to financial assistance to poor people (e.g.

Temporary Aid to Needy Families). This usage is not generally reflected elsewhere, but it has been adopted by politicians in the UK in recent years.

Welfare is often associated with needs, but it goes beyond what people need; to achieve well- being, people must have choices, and the scope to choose personal goals and ambitions.

Arguments for welfare

Arguments for welfare, Rowman and Littlefield (2017) The basic arguments for collective provision are:

➢ Humanitarian - Concerns about poverty and need have been central to many developments.

➢ Religious. Several of the world's major religions make charity a religious duty. Beyond charity, Catholicism recognises a duty of social solidarity (or mutual social responsibility); Judaism, Islam and Lutheran Christianity require collective responsibility for one's community.

➢ Mutual self-interest. Many welfare systems have developed, not from state activity, but

from a combination of mutualist activities, gradually reinforced by government.

➢ Democratic. Social protection has developed in tandem with democratic rights.

➢ Practical. Welfare provision has economic and social benefits. Countries with more extensive systems of social protection tend to be richer and have less poverty. (The main difficulty of evaluating this is knowing which comes first, wealth or welfare.)

There is scarcely a government in the world that does not recognise the force of these arguments and make some form of collective social provision. The real disputes are not about whether welfare should exist, but about how much provision there should be, and how it should be done.

Arguments against welfare

The main objections to the provision of welfare come from the ‘radical right'. They are against welfare in principle, on the basis that it violates people's freedom. Redistribution is theft; taxation is forced labour. (2) These arguments rest on some questionable assumptions:

➢ People have absolute rights to use property as they wish. People in a society are interdependent, and the production of property depends on social arrangements. Rights to property are conventional. Liability to taxation is part of the conventions.

➢ People do not consent to welfare provision; redistributive arrangements are based in compulsion. This is not necessarily true. Several countries have developed welfare systems, in whole or in part, on a voluntary, mutualist basis - Denmark, Finland and Sweden have moved to compulsion only recently.

➢ The rights of the individual are paramount. Property rights are certainly important,

but few people would argue that property rights are more important than every other moral value. If one person owns all the food in a region while everybody else is starving, do the others have no moral claim on it?

The radical right also claims that the welfare state has undesirable effects in practice. Economically, it can be argued that economic development is more important for welfare than social provision. Dollar and Kraay, for the World Bank, have argued that property rights and a market economy are essential for growth and so for the protection of the poor. (3) It would not follow that welfare is unimportant. The other main argument is that the welfare state undermines

economic performance. This position, reviewed later in the section on the economics of welfare states, is not consistent with the evidence.

In social terms, the welfare state is accused of fostering dependency and trapping people in poverty. (4) Evidence on the dynamics of poverty shows that poverty and dependency are not long-term, but affect people at different stages in the life cycle; the population of welfare claimants is constantly changing. For most people in developed countries, poverty is transitory.

(5) Where poor people are separated and excluded by welfare, this is mainly the product of the kinds of restricted, residual system the radical right has been arguing for.

Social welfare: Social welfare refers to conditions of social well-being when social problems are satisfactorily managed, social needs are met and social opportunities are created to meet the needs of individuals, families, groups and communities.

Social welfare services: Services and programmes that are provided to meet social needs and create opportunities for people to realise their potential. In this document, such services include prevention and promotion; social assistance and social relief; protection; statutory social support; restorative, rehabilitative and therapeutic continuing care and reintegration; and aftercare services.

Social Welfare Administration – Definition

Social welfare administration is a process through which social policy is transformed into social services. It involves the administration of government and non-government agencies. The American Council of Social Work Education in its curriculum study has given a comprehensive definition of social welfare administration. It states “administration is the process of transforming community resources into a programme of community services, in accordance with goals, policies and standards which has been agreed by those involved in the enterprise. It is creative in that it structures roles and relationships in such a way as to alter and enhance the total product. It involves the problem solving process of study, diagnosis and treatment”. Herleigh Tracker (1971) interprets social welfare administration as a “process of working with people in ways that release and relate their energies so that they use available resources to accomplish the purpose of providing needed community services and programmes.”

Features of Social Welfare Administration

Some distinctive features of social welfare administration are:

1. Social welfare administration deals with social welfare agencies and helps them to achieve their objectives for the target groups for which they are working. It is specifically concerned with identifica tion of social objectives, the formulation and implementation of proposed programmes to achieve the objectives laid down.

2. From functional point of view, social welfare administration includes three perspectives of social problems:

➢ restoration of impaired social functioning;

➢ Pr ovision of resources, social and individual, for more effective social functioning;

➢ prevention of social dysfunction.

3. Despite variations in size, scope, structure and types of programmes, every agency has a governing board as an apex body for final decision-making. The board is generally represented by the community it intends to serve.

4. Social welfare administration requires optimum utilization of its available resources together with active community participation, so that the ultimate goal of programmes can be achieved properly.

5. Social welfare agencies have to allocate certain portion of their resources for survival so that the organization can continue to exist. But this should not limit their capacity to achieve quantitative and qualitative growth.

6. Social welfare agencies generally function in a cooperative manner and ensure participation of all the members in administration of their activities.

7. There is a growing trend in thse agencies to recruit professionally qualifiedmanpower. It has helped in introducing professional approach in their functioning.

Functions of Social Welfare Administration

The functions of social welfare administration to achieve the objectives set up by the agency would include:

1. To formulate the appropriate objectives and programmes of the agency, it is very important to get the required information and to understand the total situation. The agency generally focuses on a particular problem in a particular geographical area.

2. To analyze the collected information so as to plan appropriate measures to solve social problems. Social welfare agency’s work is to address social problems of the society in that given area.

3. To recognize, screen and opt for an appropriate plan of action to tackle problems and handle the initiatives of the social welfare agency.

4. Formulating policies, programmes and plans for effectively carrying out the objectives of the social welfare agency in a planned manner.

5. To identify appropriate personnel for the social welfare agency with proper orientation and supervision so that they understand the objectives and how to implement the programmes in order to achieve the goals of the agency.

6. To inspire volunteers who can involve themselves in the aims, objectives and goals of the social welfare agency.

7. The administration has to delegate work to various departments under supervisors who will be accountable for the assigned work, in the various departments which has to be coordinated so that maximum results are obtained.

8. Rules, regulations, practices and procedures have to be set up so that there is uniformity and accountability among all staff in the agency so that the objectives of the agency are easily accomplish hed.

9. The agency must keep proper records and reports. These records and reports must be analyzed and interpreted to find out the progress of the agency’s work.

10. The financial practices must be very economically and strictly laid down so that there can be no misappropriations. The finances must be accurately utilized and accounted for finance is the backbone of any organization. So finances must be properly managed.

11. Every agency has to lay down certain standards of work and work towards meeting those standards at all times. The personnel from highest level to the lowest level must understand and maintain the standards and work for it with great care.

12. One of the main threads that binds the whole agency together is communication. The communication must be clear and smooth from all sectors of the agency be it horizontal from department to department, or vertical from top to bottom or bottom to top. The agency must also have an open communication channel with the community people.

13. Social welfare administration must also see to it that the agency has suitable coordination within the various departments of the agency and at various levels in the agency. The agency when it works as a whole, it becomes most effective to meet its objectives. The social welfare agency must also have proper coordination with other agencies working in the same field. There must be networking with agencies with similar themes, in same geographical areas.

14. Social welfare administration has an important role in monitoring and evaluation of the agency’s programmes and in assessing overall work

Development approach to social welfare services

Developmental social welfare: The social welfare system in South Africa applies the principles of the social developmental approach. In the Framework, developmental social welfare is measured by such criteria as promotion of human rights, use of partnerships to deliver services,

integration of socio-economic programmes, and bridging of the micro-macro divides in service delivery. Developmental social welfare emphasizes the empowerment of individuals, families, groups and communities as active participants in the developmental process.

Developmental approach: An approach that links social welfare programmes more effectively with economic development programmes. Social and economic developments are viewed as complementary sides of the same coin. Social development is a dynamic process of growth and change that occurs through the promotion of developmental processes to achieve the general welfare of society.

Purpose of developmental social welfare/ social policy

Purpose of developmental social welfare:

➢ Enhance social functioning and human capacities.

➢ Promote social solidarity through participation and community involvement in social welfare.

➢ Promote social inclusion through empowerment of those who are socially and economically excluded from the mainstream of society.

➢ Protect and promote the rights of populations at risk.

➢ Address oppression and discrimination arising not only from structural forces but also from social and cultural beliefs and practices that hamper social inclusion.

➢ Contribute significantly to community building and local institutional development.

Stakeholders in social welfare services

1. Government/ public sector Roles and responsibilities

➢ developing and aligning their programmes and strategies with the developmental social

welfare services framework and other policies and legislative frameworks governing the provision of social welfare services;

➢ advancing developmental social welfare services as determined by structures established

for the management of collaborative partnerships; •

➢ ensuring compliance with developmental social welfare service standards and professional ethics by social service practitioners in their employment.

2. Civil society

The history and success of the delivery of developmental social welfare services can be traced to civil society organisational structures. These include organised/formal structures (national bodies) and informal networks of organisations rendering social welfare services. Whatever their

type, the impact of services delivered by civil society organisations is experienced equally at local level.

➢ Financing services

➢ Providing services

3. Private sector

4. International development agencies/donors

SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF DELIVERING SOCIAL SERVICES

Service Delivery is conceptualised as the relationship between policymakers, service providers, and poor people. It encompasses services and their supporting systems that are typically regarded as a state responsibility. These include social services (primary education and basic health services), infrastructure (water and sanitation, roads and bridges) and services that promote personal security (justice, police).Pro-poor service delivery refers to interventions that maximise the access and participation of the poor by strengthening the relationships between policy makers, providers, and service users.

Challenges/obstacles hampering the delivery of social services

1. The complex interplay between political will and state capacity poses major obstacles to poor people’s access and participation in service delivery in difficult environments. Where political will is lacking, certain groups may be deliberately excluded from social services on the basis of gender, ethnicity, religion, caste, tribe, race, or political affiliation. In situations of weak state capacity the poor may be unable to access services because of their geographical location, or because the services available do not meet their needs or have high real and/or opportunity costs. Where security is a problem, access may be curtailed because of the behaviour of different parties to the conflict.

2. In many difficult environments, the state may lack the capacity to supply services to poor people. There are frequently very weak policy making, implementation and monitoring systems, a lack of organisational providers and frontline workers, and limited financial resources. Infrastructure may also be weak or non-existent, with few school buildings or health clinics. Whilst this may be true of many developing countries, in difficult environments the problems may be particularly acute and are exacerbated by such factors as limited access to certain parts of

the country because of challenges of geography or security. In these situations, it will be difficult for the government to supply medicines or textbooks in some areas, and teachers, doctors and nurses may be reluctant to work in remote or inaccessible regions. In contexts with high HIV and AIDS prevalence, the human resource available to staff clinics or schools, or to manage the provision of services, may be decimated

3. Some difficult environments are characterised by a lack of political will, which means that policy makers and politicians will not push forward a pro-poor agenda. For the international community, a balance needs to be struck between using diplomatic tools to influence governments, and ensuring that the humanitarian needs of vulnerable groups are met. In some instances, particular groups may be deliberately targeted by repressive regimes. The mechanisms for supporting and expanding service delivery in these environments, while putting pressure on governments to become more pro-poor, are inadequately understood.

4. Poor people lack access to services in difficult environments for a number of reasons. These include deliberate social exclusion (on the basis of gender, ethnicity, religion, caste, tribe, race, or political affiliation), remote geography, inappropriate services, high real and/or opportunity costs, or security concerns. While many of these obstacles are also present in ‘better performing’ environments, they are magnified in the types of context under discussion here. This sub-section focuses on interventions that may be effective at reducing these barriers to access in difficult environments.

5. One challenge for the poor in difficult environments (in common with the poor across most developing countries) is meeting the high cost of accessing services, both direct and indirect. A full review of all the possible approaches and responses is beyond the scope of this paper, but it is worth focusing here on user fees.

There are strong advocates for the removal of user fees in the health and education sectors, but this may not be feasible in many difficult environments where non-state actors are a major provider of services, and lack of government capacity makes effective regulation virtually impossible. More promising may be efforts to increase the amount of disposable income that the poor have access to. One way to do this is through cash for work programmes. Other social protection58 initiatives that may have the potential to offer a safety net for the poor and enable them to access services include conditional cash transfers, nutrition support services, and fee exemptions

6. Lack of capacity by services providers In difficult environments, the capacity of providers may be weak in terms of infrastructure, human and financial resources, and responsiveness to the poor.

7. Insecurity - Many countries, particularly across sub-Saharan Africa, are facing a growing crisis of human resource capacity, which is significantly impacting on their ability to deliver vital

public services. The problem is particularly stark in difficult environments where, for example, conflict may exacerbate overall shortages of personnel, teachers and health personnel may be

8. In difficult environments scaling up the delivery of services and reaching the poor is problematic because the relationships between the policymaker, the provider and the citizens break down. The state is unwilling and/or unable to monitor and support providers or to respond to demands from citizens for service access and quality.

9. Problem of achieving adequate inter-agency collaboration. As pointed out at the beginning of this paper, the social services diat are relevant to social development are best conceived as consisting of an intervention package made up of specialised services mobilised from different service agencies in order to address complex human needs. From that perspective, it can be readily realised that die social service delivery system of a country, considered as a whole, may suffer from the sibling rivalry and selfishness diat commonly exists among service agencies whose collaboration is essential to the processing and delivery of a package of needed services.

Solutions

1. Reduce the costs of accessing services:

2. Build capacity of state providers

References

Chris Berry, Ali Forder, Sonya Sultan, and Magüi Moreno-Torres (2004) Approaches to Improving the Delivery of Social Services in Difficult Environments: PRDE Working Pap er Poverty Redu ction in Difficult Environments Team Policy Division UK Department for International Development

REFERENCES

Evans M (2007) The art of prescription: theory and practice in public administration research. Public policy and administration.

Le Grand J (2006) Motivation, agency, and public policy: of knights and knaves, pawns and queens: Oxford: Oxford University Press

Sabatier A and Hank C. Jenking-Smith, Theories of the Policy Process: “The Advocacy Coalition Framework”, 1999, Water view Press Oxford, p. 117-159.

Larry N. Gerston. 2004,Public Policy Making: Process and Principles M.E. Sharpe.

Solivetti, L.M. (2010), Immigration, social integration and crime: a cross-national approach. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon; New York: Routledge.

William, K. B. (2007), the Economic Analysis of Public Policy. Routledge.

Gerald, J. M. (2006), Handbook of Public Policy Analysis Theory, Politics, and Methods. CRC Press.

Ron, S. (2007), Analyzing Public Discourse Analysis in the Making of Public Policy. Routledge

1. SP Baldwin, 1990, The politics of social solidarity, Cambridge University Press 1990.

2. R Nozick, 1974, Anarchy state and utopia, Basic Books.

3. D Dollar, A Kraay, 2001, Growth is good for the poor, World Bank; D Dollar, T Kleineberg, 4. A Kraay, 2013, Growth is still good for the poor, World Bank. e.g. C Murray, 1984, Losing Ground, Basic Books.

4. L Leisering, R Walker (eds) 1988, The dynamics of modern society, Policy Press; or S Cellini, 2008, The dynamics of poverty in the United States.

5. G Esping-Andersen, 1990, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Polity.

6. A B Atkinson, 1995, The welfare state and economic performance, in Incomes and the welfare state, Cambridge University Press

7. C Pierson, 2006, Beyond the welfare state, Cambridge: Polity.

Teacher: penina kaseu

HUMAN GROWTH

Human Growth & Development - Lecture notes - gd notes 2

Human Growth & Development (University of Windsor)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Genius…Born or Made?

Skill Development

Tuesday January 2nd, 2014

- Expertise in a field is a result of being genetically advantaged (i.e. traits you are born with)
- Expertise in a field is a result of environmental influences Movie – Searching for Bobby Fisher
Memory test – How good is your memory?
Other environmental Factors
When you were born can have a huge impact on your life
Why do we group children by age?
- Developmentally appropriate education & instruction.
- Shared social exchanges & experiences
- Fair competition
- Equal opportunity

Western Hockey League vs. Ontario Hockey League

W What would it look like if your birthday didn’t matter

What is actually looks like

AGE MATTERS
Canadian Junior Team Born in first half  17

Born in second half  5 United States Junior Team
Women’s Hockey
- Canadian Olympic Team
▪ Born in 1st half  15
▪ Born in 2nd half  6
- Canadian Women’s team (Under 18)
▪ Born in1st half  13
▪ Born in 2nd half  9

Born in first half  15 Born in second half  6

Windsor Spitfires Born in first half  21
Born in second half  2
Why do older kids have such an advantage?
- Cut off dates are January 1, which allows for a greater amount of time of growth. Older kids look more talented because they are older which has allowed for more practice
Variability in Physical Development
*On average there is going to be a lot of gap between people born in January and December
*Grouping by year may still be ineffective because there will be differences within the year

Relative Age Effect (RAE)
- The older one is relative to peers, the greater the probability of eventually becoming an elite athlete (Barnsley, Thompson & Barnsley, 1985)  Barnsley married couple
- Describes a selection advantage to those born during initial months over those born later within age-grouped cohorts.
- In School, younger class members report more academic problems
RAE & Maturation
- Height & weight advantages (Maturation variability peaks at 13-15 years in boys, 12- 14 years in girls)
- More likely to be identified by coaches, parents as “talented” (Get picked for all-star teams, get better coaching)
NHL Players in History January – 711 July - 492
February – 577 August - 417
March – 598 September - 481
April – 592 October - 450
May – 557 November - 404
June – 500 December - 385
Underdog hypotheses  the very best players may actually be born in the last three or four months of the year
RAE & Women’s Sport
- Vast majority of research into RAE has looked at males
- Recent meta-analysis shows just 2% of research-examined females in sport

- Expansion of female game and opportunities
- Ontario women’s hockey association formed in 1975
- First Canadian women’s world championship held in 1990
▪ Over the next decade registration increased 300%
RAE in Women’s Hockey
- Women’s hockey accepted as an Olympic sport in 1992, but debuted as a full medal sport in Nagano in 1998
- Justine Blainey and Manon Rheaume et the stage for women’s hockey in Canada
Women’s hockey 1999-2009
- National level players
- U-22 development team
Implications
- The evolution of women’s hockey in Canada has provided more opportunities for women and girls to play
▪ However, the opportunities to play at the elite level are going primarily to women born early in the year
- After 20 years of development, RAE profile is starting to look like the men
- 6x as many male players as female players in Canada.
Conditions for RAE
- The larger the pool of players for a given sport in a given category, the stronger the resulting RAE tends to be.
▪ RAE was stronger in cities where more ice hockey players were available to form teams
▪ Among NHL players, the RAE was most pronounced for those born in Ontario (most populous province of Canada)
Hockey in Canada
- We’re obviously doing something right……
▪ Why change a winning system?
- Or do we win in spite of our system?
- Sheer number of players in Canada
- Canada has more children playing hockey than Russia, Sweden, Finland, Slovakia, & Czech Republic… combined
Talent ID programs … do they work?
- Countries employing intensive early talent identification and development systems in sport…. (e.g. China)
▪ May be achieving the opposite effect
▪ By reducing their talent pool through early selection processes and generating RAEs.
▪ Issue of fairness?? ~ instead of expanding talent pool, your reduce it; not giving everyone an equal opportunity

Volunteer Opportunity
- Chronic Disease Management Program
▪ St. Denis center Monday, Wednesday mornings
- Police clearance
- Orientation
- Dodie Wilson
▪ dwilson@wechc.org
Video: Fountain lady fights back Video Etiquette
- There will be lots of videos
▪ Picture is worth thousand words …
- Laptop (student concerns)
▪ Screen/typing ~ dim screen lighting
▪ If you’re addicted to social media …
▪ Successful students in past classes
Article: Laptop multitasking hinders classroom learning for both users and nearby peers

- Soccer has a different cut off date, which results in a different distribution

RAE in Australian Sport

Other Sports, Countries
- RAE found in multiple countries (e.g., Australia, USA, U.K.)
- Across multiple sports (e.g., rugby, cricket, baseball )
Soccer … Perfect test case
- Helsen et al. (2000) American Journal of Human Biology
- Since 1997 - following the guidelines of the International Football Association- Belgian Soccer Federation has used January 1st as the start of the selection year.
- Previously, August 1 was the start
Prior to 1997
- Youth players born from August to October (the early part of the selection year)
▪ More likely to be identified as “talented” and to be exposed to higher levels of coaching

- In contrast, a greater rate of dropout, as early as 12 years of age, for players born late in the selection year.
Soccer … Perfect test case
- Researchers able to compare how birth-date distributions changed for 1996–1997 compared to 1997–1998 for elite youth players
- In 1996–1997, 12-year-old was defined as a child who has his/her 12th birthday during the “soccer year,” which fell between August 1 and July 31 of the next calendar year.
- Subsequently, 12 year-old defined by calendar year (Jan 1 – Dec 31)
- 1996–1997
▪ 10–11-year-old players
▪ 36.8 % were born within first 3 months of the competitive year (Aug, Sept, Oct)
▪ _17.1 % in the last 3 months of the selection year (May, June, July)
- 1997–1998
▪ 32.7% were born in first 3 months (Jan, Feb, Mar)
▪ 18.3% in last 3 months (Oct, Nov, Dec)
- 1996–1997
▪ 12–13-year-old players
▪ 30.9% were born within the first quarter (Aug, Sept, Oct)
▪ 14.4% in the last quarter (May, June, July)
- 1997–1998
▪ 37.1 % born within the first 3 months (Jan, Feb, Mar)
▪ 19.8% in the last 3 months (Oct, Nov, Dec)
- 1996–1997
▪ 14–15-year-old players
▪ 44.8% born August–October
▪ 12.5 % May–July
- 1997–1998
▪ 29.6% were born Jan-March
▪ 21.9% were born Oct-Dec
Older players – 16-18
- No difference in birth-date distributions after the change in reference date from August to January

Explanations
- Players born in the last two quarters (Feb-July) by the time they reach 16–18 years old, may have dropped out of the sport
- Players previously disadvantaged by relative age but continued to play may have experienced catch-up growth associated with adolescence, thereby lessening the relative age effect.
- Existing players already established - and better due to training (accumulated advantage)

Related to height and weight?
- Players aged 11–12
▪ Competing in the highest national level heavier 39.4 kg) and taller 147.4 cm) than players of the same age competing at a lower, regional level (32.6 kg; 143.6 cm).
Exceptions?
- RAE reversed in gymnastics
▪ Its an advantage to be small
Relative Age Effect: Cycle of Events?

Solutions?
- Work with the system; choose a sport that corresponds with your birthday
- Create opportunity for the younger generation (a certain number from each month)
- Rotate the cut of date
- Delay the age at which you stream line
- 2 cut of dates within the same year (two different leagues)
Education
- More likely to be identified as gifted if born in Q1 (Thompson, 1971)
- Younger students (Q4) more like to be identified as
▪ Special needs (Bookbinder, 1967; Wilson, 2000)
▪ Learning disabled (Martin et al., 2004)
Cobley et al. (2008)
- 657 students aged 11-14
- UK schools
▪ Sept 1 – cut off date
▪ Aug 30 – can be a full year younger than student born Sept. 2.
Cobeley et al. (2008)
- Q1 (Sept-Nov) students attended 6 more days than Q4 (June-Aug) students

- Correlation between school attendance and relative age, school attendance and school performance
- Similar to relatively younger athletes dropping out of sport (Barnsley & Thompson, 1998
ADHD
- Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
- most commonly diagnosed behavioral disorder among children, with diagnosis rates ranging from 8-12% (Biederman and Faraone, 2006).
- In the US - 4.5 million children under age 18 diagnosed with ADHD, with roughly 2.5 million of these children regularly using prescription medication to treat their symptoms (Bloom and Cohen, 2007).
- prescriptions of psychostimulants to children diagnosed with ADHD rose by more than 700% in the U.S. between 1991 and 2005 (Mayes and Erkulwater, 2008).
- Intense public debate about whether ADHD is over or under diagnosed in children
- Spawned widespread concern that millions of children regularly use potentially harmful medications to treat a disorder with inherently subjective symptoms (LeFever et al., 2003).
Accurate Identification of ADHD is Critical
- Children with ADHD:
o increased risk of difficulties
o greater incidence of learning disabilities (Mayes et al., 2000)
o higher chance of repeating a grade (Currie and Stabile, 2006)
o higher school dropout rate (Trampush et al., 2009).
o higher rates of drug use (Biederman et al., 1998),
o greater car accident rates (Woodward et al., 2000)
o greater likelihood of having other psychiatric conditions (Pliszka, 1998)
- an underlying neurological problem
- incidence rates should not change dramatically from one birth date to the next
- However, much like coaches who confuse talent with age, teachers often confuse ADHD with immaturity.
- many diagnoses may be driven by teachers’ perceptions of poor behaviour among the youngest children in a classroom.
ADHD-Its Subjective Nature
- Some degree of subjectivity in ADHD diagnoses may be unavoidable:
- primary symptoms, inattentiveness and hyperactivity, are apparent in nearly all children, especially those under the age of six
- normal for all children to be inattentive, hyperactive, or impulsive sometimes, but for children with ADHD, these behaviours are more severe and occur more often.

The Findings
- Children born just before the state’s age-of-start cutoff date are 50 to 60% more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than those born just after
o ‘relatively older’ children less likely to be diagnosed with ADHD
- “Our estimates imply that roughly 20 percent of the 2.5 million children who use drugs (Ritalin) intended to treat ADHD have been misdiagnosed”
o 625,000 American children
o 62,500 Canadian children
The Side of Effects of Drug Effects
- Insomnia
- Headache
- Dizziness
- Decreased appetite
- Reduced growth rates
o Children continuously treated with stimulants grew 1.92cm (0.76 inches) less in height and gained 3.80 kg (8.36 pounds) less in weight than those treated with a placebo
o Children aged 7-10

Long Term CInsequnces
- After 14 months and stopped treatment
o Children continued to grow more slowly over the next 10 months than those continuously given placebo
- Suggests that these growth deficits may be difficult to reverse
o Treatment Study of ADHD follow-up: changes in effectiveness and growth after the end of treatment. Pediatrics 113 (4), 762–769.
- Chronic use of ADHD stimulants:
o causes persistent cardiovascular changes (increases in blood pressure and resting pulse rates)
The Other Side
- Legitimate cases of ADHD in the relatively older children may go undiagnosed, possibly leading to long-term adverse effects on academic success and social adjustment.
- Whether relatively young children are over-diagnosed, relatively old children are under-diagnosed, or both, current efforts to define and diagnose ADHD appear to fall short of an objective standard
RAE
- Final thoughts 
- Coaches/Teachers – acting rationally (pick the best players or best students and these kids happen to be older)
- The system – set up to promote equal opportunity.

Birthplace Effect
- Where were you born?
- Does (city) size matter?

Canadian Data (NHL)
City size Canada Pop (%) NHL (%)
> 500,000 33.2 15.7
100,000 - 499,999 13.3 33.2
30,000 – 99,999 7.6 15.8
10,000 – 29,999 7.3 10.4
5,000 – 9,999 3.4 7.7
1,000 – 2,499 3.3 6.0
< 1,000 28.5 5.1
U.S Ice Hockey (n=151)
City size U.S. Pop (%) NHL(%)
>5,000,000 9.9 .7
2,500,000 – 4,999,999 11.4 2.6
1,000,000 – 2,499,999 18.1 3.3
500,000 – 999,999 12.4 6.6
250,000 – 499,999 11.0 12.6
100,000 – 249,999 9.6 17.9
50,000 – 99,999 1.1 17.2
< 50,000 26.4 39.1

Results (US Sports)

➔ Less study done on women’s sport’s but generally the smaller the city the better the chance of making it to the higher leagues
Women in Soccer
- National women’s soccer team
o Number of women who have older brothers who played soccer
o Developmental advantages
▪ Playing with brother
▪ Returning to her age group (she looks even better)
Birhtplace: When Size Matters!
- The city size where athletes gain their formative experiences may potentially have a significant influence of how athletes will be first exposed to sports
- Why?  because there is enough people for competition but not too many
people that there is too much competition to make teams
o Smaller cities, it is easier to get to practices and games because it is a shorter drive in a smaller city (less traffic)
o Cheaper to play some sports in smaller communities, and cost of living is cheaper and they can afford to spend extra sports

Big Cities
- Lots of facilities, but potentially expensive
- Travel time (stuck in traffic)
- Little fish in a big pond

Smaller Cities
- More opportunity to get involved in activities
- Big fish in a little pond
- Attention from coaches and adults
Can the city be too small?
- Lack of facilities
- Not enough resources (people, coaches)
- Small towns in Saskatchewan-hockey
➔ Sweet spot with city size, not too small but not too big
Birthplace Effect: Possible Cycle of Events

Skill Maintenance
Beyond Peak Performance
- VO2 max
o Peaks in early 20s, 0.5-1% yearly decline thereafter
- Choice reaction time
o Slows by 60% from age 20 to age 60
- IQ scores
o Decline of 1 SD (15-16 points) from age 25 to 65
- Normal aging take a toll on speed and efficiency of cognitive, perceptual and psychomotor function
Schultz and Crunow (1988)

Dara Torres (41 years of age)
- 2008 Olympics – 3 silver medals
- Missed gold in 100m freestyle by 1/100th of a second
- Time in 100m freestyle was a PR
- Oldest medalist in history of Olympic swimming (William Robinson, 38, 1908)
Peak Performance
- Sports depending on reaction time and raw power - athletes peak in their early 20s
- Sports more cognitive in nature and required greater precision and control - peak performance occurs later - in the late 20s or early 30s.
Physicists

Medical Pioneers

Writers

By the time you’re 60…
- VO2 max, reaction time is shot
- IQ has plummeted…
- Not contributing anything to society
Over the hill?
- Margret Atwood (author)
- Age 74
- The test (2006)
- The Door (2007)
- Paybeck; debt and the shadow side of wealth (2008)
- The Year of the Flood (2010)
- In Other Worlds (2011)
- Maddaddam (2013)
Ludwig Van Beethoven
- 1770-1827
- Symphony # 9 (1824)
- One of the greatest music accomplishments of all time
- Composed while completely deaf
➔ Video: Immortal Beloved

Benjamin Franklin
- 1706-1790
- Scientist, writer, politician

- Invented bifocal lenses at age 78
- Research on lead poisoning age 80
The Paradox
- Significant accomplishment at ages that are well along the age-decline curve
- “Why are old people so bad at cognitive tasks?”
- But rather
- “How, in spite of growing disabilities, do older people perseve such relatively good performance?”
The case of Typing (Salthouse, 1984)

The case of Piano (Krampe and Ericsson, 1996)
- 4 groups
- Expert pianists – young and old
- Amateur pianist – young and old
- Measure all participants of a number of different tasks:
o General in nature
o Specific to piano
- Results
o For general measures (ie choice RT), older experts and older amateurs both showed normal age related decline
o For piano specific measures, older amateurs declined, but older experts showed no decline
Abilities vs Skill

- Experts appear to suffer a decline in their general abilities
- At the same time, experts appear to maintain their skills
How do older experts maintain their skills?
- 3 Theories
- # 1) Preserved differentiation (general factor) account
o Genetic explanation
o experts had a genetic advantage across the lifespan
o allows them to maintain skills at high level at older age
- #2) Compensation
o Experts compensate for a loss in some areas by improving in others
o Older typists scanned further ahead in the text than younger typists
- #3) Selective Maintenance
o Domain specific skills are maintained through practice
o Older experts pianists engaged in deliberate practice for 11 hours per week
▪ (vs 27 hrs for young experts)
o Older amateur pianists engaged in 1 hour of deliberate practice per week
Older Experts more Efficient?
- Therese Brisson
- Olympic Gold Medalist
- Ph.D. in motor learning
- “More experienced athletes tend to train smarter and more efficiently….I find that I can accomplish more in a 40-minute workout than a less experienced athlete can accomplish in a 3h session”
Ed Whitlock
- Age 82
- Only person 70+ to run marathon under 3 hours (2:54:48)
- At age 80 – ran 3:15:54 marathon
- 10 world age group records at different distances.
- Trains 18 hours/week

Fauja Singh
- “impossible is nothing”
- 102 years old
- first marathon at 89
- Ontario Masters Athletics

o http://ontariomastersathletics.ca/latest-oma-news/100-year-old-fauja- singh-sets-eight-world-records-in-a-row/
Keeping active – mentally and physically
- Contrary to what we thought for years….
- Rats produce thousands of new brain cells each day
- Cells die if they are not engaged
- Learning essential to keeping those cells
- The more difficult the task, the more cells that were retained
Clarence Brazier
- Learned to read at 93 – after wife died
- Started at the very beginning (words like: cat, rat)
- Slow gradual improvement, now reads for 2 hours a day – politics, history.
- Won Canada’s national literacy award.
Youth Sport
Why Children Participate in Sports
- Have fun
- To improve skills
- To be with friends
- To be part of a team
- To experience excitement
- To receive awards
- To win
- To become physically fit (Wankel & Kreisel, 1985)
10 Most Important Reasons I play My Best School Sport
- To have fun
- To improve my skill
- To stay in shape
- To do something Im good at
- For excitement of competition
- To get exercise
- To play as part of a team
- Challenge
- To learn new skills
- To win
Benefits of Youth Sport
- Physical Development

o e.g. fitness, skills, muscular strength & endurance, flexibility, bone structure
- Psychological / Emotional Development
o e.g. self-esteem, stress reduction, challenge, fun, enjoyment, life satisfaction
- Social Development
o e.g. citizenship, social success, peer relationships, leadership, career achievement, community integration, discipline, commitment
- Intellectual Development
o e.g. school grades, school attendance, cognitive development
Negative Outcomes of Youth Sport
- Physical Development
o injuries, eating disorders
- Emotional / Psychological Development
o low perceived abilities, low self-esteem, burnout
- Social Development
o violence, aggression, low moral reasoning
Participation: Competence Movitation Theory
- Harter’s Model
o Individuals are motivated to be successful in various achievement areas such as sports, academics, or human relationships
o When performance is successful, there is a positive effect on the individual
o When performance is not successful, the individual will most likely quit
Why Children Drop Out of Sports
- I lost interest
- Not having fun
- Took too much time
- Coach was a poor teacher
- There was too much pressure
- I wanted a non-sport activity
- I was tired of it
- Needed more study time
- Coach played favorites
- The sport was boring
- Too much emphasis on winning

Six Most Important Changes Children would make to go back to a Dropped Sport
- Boys
o Practice needs to be more fun
o I could play more
o Coaches understood players better
o No conflict with studies
o Coaches were better teachers
o There was no conflict with social life
- Girls:
o Practices were more fun
o There was no conflict with studies
o Coaches understood players better
o No conflict with social life
o I could play more
o Coaches were better teachers
➔ CHILDREN WANT TO HAVE FUN
Program Design
- We often see youth sport programs that are:
o elist
o selective from young ages
o focused entirely on winning
o expect specialization
o highly structured
If you remember; Deliberate Practice
- high in effort and concentration
- Directly relevant to performance
- “not enjoyable” (??)
- Practice alone
- Takes 10,000 hours of deliberate practice to achieve expertise in anything, i.e. sports, music, science

1
0
Sa9mpling Years (ages 6-12)
8- Focus on…
7 o Variety of sports/activities
6 o Deliberate play
- Leads to
o Diversified skill base
o Intrinsic motivation

Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 20

Specializing Years (ages 13-15)
- Fewer activities with higher investment
- Deliberate play – deliberate practice balance
Investment Years (ages 16+)
- One activity with high investment
- Deliberate practice
Interview with a national basketball player
“I had different activities in my life at that time (under 12). I was still playing squash and still playing hockey and doing other stuff as well. I had no idea I would focus on basketball at that stage. Between 12 and 16… basketball became my main sport. I had cancelled out the other sports. But I still wasn’t 100% focused on basketball at that time. I still had my school and other stuff but it was definitely my number one sport.

Basketball was everything from 16 on. It was pretty much all that I was concentrating on.”
(National Basketball Team Player)
➔ But athletes need to specialize early to ‘make it’ in their sport
o Much research suggests that early specialization can lead to elite performance
o But there is a cost
▪ Injury?
▪ Lack of enjoyment?
▪ Dropout/burnout
Don’t Use Your Head
- Dangers of heading the soccer ball
- Mild to severe deficits in attention, concentration and memory reported in 81% of adults soccer players measured (Norway)
- Kids complaining of headaches after heading the ball
Sport Participation: Overuse Injuries
- Youth are specializing in sport at earlier ages which involves year round training
- Overuse injuries occur as a result of placing the body under repeated stress over a long period of time
Sport Pariticpation
- Match competitors according to body size and weight
- A potential answer to RAE?
Sport Participation: Controversies over Making Weight
- Some adults have used certain practices to give their child a competitive edge (ie lower weight class)
o Exercising in a sauna
o Not letting child drink water
o Making child spit out saliva
o Administering diuretics
o Exercising in a rubber suit
o Fasting
- Dangers of rapid dehydration
o Cells, urine output, blood volume and sweating mechanisms do not function properly
o 3% weight loss will decrease physical performance

o 5% weight loss can lead to heat exhaustion
o 7% weight loss can lead to hallucinations
o 10% weight loss can lead to heat stroke and circulatory collapse
- Dangers of fasting
o Carried to an extreme can result in death (gymnastics is a big one)
o Cristy Henrich
▪ Young gymnast was told by a judge that if she did not lose weight she would never make the Olympic team
▪ 15 years of age, weighed 90 lb; 4’11” tall
▪ Basically stopped eating - eventually died of multiple organ failure
• She weighed less than 60lbs when she died
It Depends…
- Outside temperature, humidity
- Intensity of exercise
- Fitness levels (sweat rates vary among individuals subjected to same exercise conditions)
- Women tennis players –sweat rate of 0.7-1.4 litres/hr
- Men tennis players – 1.2-2.5 litres/hr
- (measured in hot, humid conditions)
- American Academy of Pediatrics – limit exercise to 15 minutes in hot humid conditions
Sport Participation: Controversies
- Psychological issues
o Stress (unpleasant emotional state)
o Are young athletes being exposed to too much competitive stress
- Youth sport participation is not the only stress encountered in the daily life of a young person
- Pre-competition Anxiety
o 468 children in youth sports
o 281 children who competed in other activities (i.e., school test, group competition in band, and band solo competition)
State Anxiety

➔ Result; sports are stressful but not the most stressful thing in their lives
Reducing Stress
- Change something about the sport so that success occurs more often than failure
o T-ball uses stationary batting tee instead of a pitcher
o But maybe the best way to reduce stress for kids……….
Parental Educations: Curbing Violence
- There has been a significant increase in violent behavior from parents during the last 15 years
o Occurrences range from attacks to murders
- Parent beats a volunteer coach to death in front of his children after a youth ice hockey practice for ten year olds
- Organizations are requiring parental education
o Sportsmanship training
o Parents Association for Youth Sports (PAYS)
o Greater Kingston Hockey league
Youth Sport Coaching
- Who’s coaching our children?
o Most coaches are volunteers
▪ 90% lack the necessary formal preparation to coach
o 9 out of 10 volunteer coaches are men

- Why do people volunteer?
o Involvement of coach's child in league
▪ In Canada –54% of coaches had 1 or 2 children playing in the same league
o Personal enjoyment
o Skill development of players
o Character development of players
o Personal challenge
- The annual turnover rate for coaches is 50%
- Rising number of lawsuits!
o Directed toward youth sport coaches and organizations because of alleged negligence during practices and games
Youth Sport Coaching-Education
- Injury care and prevention
- Risk and safety management
- Knowledge of growth and development
- Training, conditioning, and nutrition
- Social/psychological aspects of coaching
- Skills, tactics, strategies
- Teaching and administration
- Professional preparation and development
Youth Sport Coaching
- Arguments AGAINST mandatory coaching certification
o Already a shortage of coaches
o Demand for coaches exceeds supply
▪ Programs may have to be cut
o Certification process is expensive
- How do we judge if a coach is any good?
- Evaluating coaching effectiveness
o Coaching Behavioral Assessment System
o Instrument designed to evaluate the behaviors of coaches in an actual game setting
o “Unannounced observers” watch coach for
▪ Reactive behaviors to players
▪ Spontaneous behaviors by the coach
Origins of the Research

- Tharp and Gallimore (1976)
o Educational psychologists
- Observational instrument
o Initially used to evaluate teachers in the classroom
o Coaching behaviors recording form
John Wooden
- Coached UCLA Bruins for 27 years
- (1948-1975)
- Won 10 NCAA titles, 7 in a row
- First person to be inducted into the Hall of Fame as a player and a coach
Coaching Behaviors Recording Form (CBRF)
- Instructions
- Praises
- Scolds
- Nonverbal reward (i.e., clapping)
- Nonverbal Punishment (i.e.,shaking head)
- Modeling-positive
- Modeling-negative
- Scold/re-instruction
- Hustles (let’s go!)
- Other
- Uncodable
Findings
- 75% of coaching behaviour consisted of “instructions”
- Intensity of practice sessions
o Games seemed to happen slowly because the pace in practice was so high
Wooden’s Approach
- Meticulous planning of practice – often as much time planning it as conducting it
- Players were always active, either engaged in drills or shooting free throws.
- No one was permitted to stand around watching.
- Kept detailed records of every practice session in a notebook
o “I could tell you what we did every minute of every practice in my twenty-seven years at UCLA.”
The Coach’s Role

- Constructive use of time
- Often responsible for constructing majority of athlete’s practice time
Figure Skating
- Skaters’ intentions for practice sessions
- Elite skaters estimated - immediately prior to stepping on the ice:
o seven double jumps
o twenty triple jumps
- The Reality:
o 30 doubles
o 6 triples
Team Sports
- Team sports, even under supervision of a coach, often suffer from the same underutilization of time
o Starkes (2000) high-level junior ice-hockey players
o Time-motion analysis – active 52% of practice time
- How do expert coaches construct a practice environment?
Coaching Behaviors
- Case study – Expert volleyball coach (Deakin & Cobley, 2003)
o 70% of behaviors ‘Instruction’
- Time-Motion analysis
o Athletes active 93% of practice time
o Practice more, or smarter? Expert coaches more efficient in use of practice time
Canadian National Team Coaches
- 5 National Teams (Basketball, Soccer, Wheelchair Basketball)
- Systematic Observation of practices, Interviews with coaches/athletes
- Results
- Heavy emphasis on instruction
Interviews
- Importance of Simulation
o “That’s what you need to do, as a coach…you have to create game-like situations, whatever it may be. Constantly making adjustments, making drills increasingly complex and more game-like, so that guys see the situations in practice that they’re going to see in a game.”
o “Get them to that place mentally, so that they feel that same type of pressure and energy and excitement…if they can close out in practice

against the top player on their team, then chances are they’re going to be able to close out and defend the top player on the other team in a game.”
Wooden’s Practice Philosophy
- “In every facet of basketball, we work on pressure. The opponent provides that during the game. I tried to provide it in practice with drills that re-created game conditions.”
Praise-Scold Rates
- How often should you compliment players?
- How often should your ream them out?
- When have you ?
Dealing with Players
- Professional Soccer Coach –England premier league
- “Most of them are insecure, and most of them are frightened to death 5 minutes before they go out for a game….whether you’re a professional football player or a kid, you need plenty of encouragement”
- Roger Federer
o Upset stomach, hands shaking before big matches
- Professional Soccer Coach
o Players need a ‘kick in the ass’ from time to time
▪ Done privately, away from the group
▪ Publicly berating players seen as totally counterproductive
Praise/Scold Ratios
- How often should you praise?
o Mindless overuse of praise can be problematic as well
o Specific praise of specific behaviours
Coaching Research
- High of 35 praises for every scold
- Low of 1 to 1 ratio
- Wooden: 1-1 ratio
- What is the message here?

Wooden on Court
- Noted for stern manner on the court
- Never used physical punishment (running laps) in practice sessions.
o Wanted players to enjoy practice

- Stern on-court manner balanced by grandfatherly image off the court.
- Didn’t smoke, didn’t drink, and didn’t swear, on or off the court.
- Known for caring deeply about his players
Wooden on Winning
- Jamaal Wilkes
o Played on teams that won 73 games in a row
- “Not once did I hear him talk about winning. All he ever asked is that we left the floor at the end of the game with our with our head up”
Wooden’s Career
- 27 seasons as head coach
- 10 NCAA titles
- First one came in his 16th year as head coach
- All 10 titles came in last 12 years, retired after last title
- Wooden believed he improved as a coach every year
o “I hope that I was learning the very last year that I coached. I don’t think I learned as much in the last season as I did in my first year, but I hope that I learned a bit each and every year.”
- Each off-season Wooden researched a part of the game he felt he could learn more about
o (rebounding, shooting free throws)
- Library research
- Reading
- Discussions with other coaches/players he considered knowledgeable
Deliberate Practice and Coaching
- Success in last phase of career does not seem to be accidental
o continuous improvement in his coaching knowledge and abilities
- “When you improve a little each day, eventually big things occur….not tomorrow, not the next day, but eventually a big gain is made. Don’t look for the big, quick improvement. Seek the small improvement”

Introduction to Motor Development
What is Motor Development?
- Human motor development is…
- “the sequential, continuous age-related process whereby an individual progresses from simple, unorganized, and unskilled movement to the

achievement of highly organized, complex motor skills and finally to the adjustment of skills that accompanies aging”
Domains

- Cognitive Domain
o Concerns human intellectual development
- Affective domain
o Concerned with the social and emotional aspects of human development
- Motor domain
o Development of human movement and factors that affect that development (i,e, handwriting, running skills)
- Physical domain
o All types of physical/bodily change (i.e., height, weight)
Elements of Developmental Change
Qualitative Not “just more of something”. E.g., Changes in throwing technique
Sequential Certain motor patterns precede others. E.g., we walk before we learn to run.
Cumulative Behaviors are additive, and build on each other. E.g., standing is imperative before we can learn to step, walk.
Directional Development has an ultimate goal.
Multifactorial No single factor directs change. E.g., expertise
Individual Rate of change varies for all people
Terms

- Developmental directions
o Cephalocaudal
▪ From head to tail
▪ Head of infant is large relative to the rest of the body
o Proximodistal
▪ From those points close to the body’s center to those points close to the periphery
▪ From spinal column outwards
- Gross movement
o Movement controlled by the large muscles or muscle groups
▪ legs
- Fine movement
o Movement controlled by the small muscles or muscle groups
▪ Fingers
- Process Approach
o Emphasizes the movement without consideration for the outcome
▪ Examination of the technique employed, effort involved.
- Product Approach
o Emphasizes the outcome of a movement
▪ Did the child catch the ball? Yes or No?
- Age periods throughout the lifespan

More on Age Periods (stages)
Period Significant Events
• Prenatal

-Embryonic
-Fetal • Conception to birth
• Fetus - at eight weeks post-gestation
• Infancy
-Neonatal
-Toddlerhood Birth to year 1
0-22 days after birth Walking alone
Early Childhood Ages 4-7 yr
Middle Childhood Ages 7-9 yr

Late Childhood Lasts 3 years
Adolescence Landmark period Puberty
Girls - 11 yr Boys - 13 yr
Early Adulthood Girls –age 19-20 yr Boys – age 21-22 yr Lasts until age 40 yr
Middle Adulthood Ages 40-60 yrs
Late Adulthood Age 60 to death

When Reading Research,,,
- Evaluating research
o Design
o Participants
o researcher
Coffee – good or evil?
- Drinking 2 or 3 cups per day can triple risk of pancreatic cancer (1981)
- No risk found in larger follow-up study (2001)
- Coffee reduces risk of colorectal cancer (1998)
- No benefit (2005)
- Coffee reduces risk of prostate cancer (2011)
- 2014?

Research Designs
Cross-sectional Comparison of two or more persons or groups at one point in time
Longitudinal A study over a long period of time
Time-lag Different cohorts are compared at different times

Sequential-Cohort Integrates the cross-sectional, longitudinal, and time-lag designs within one study

Research Design ~ Pros
Cross-sectional Administratively efficient Quickly completed
Longitudinal Change can be observed across ages
Sequential- Cohort Accounts for generational (cohort) effect
Research Design ~ Cons
Cross-sectional Cannot observe change over time
Age and cohort are confounded (confused, mixed up)
Longitudinal Administratively inefficient
Subjects may be influenced by repeated testing Subjects may drop out
Sequential- Cohort Administratively inefficient Costly
Subjects may drop out
Difficult to analyze statistically
Research

Research Design
- Research design can influence the results you get
- Other factors:
o Participants
▪ “Professional study participants” or guinea pigs
▪ The worse the study, the more it pays.
▪ Some studies pay thousands of dollars
▪ Breaking study protocol (i.e., dietary conditions)
Guinea Pigs
- Drug Study
o Study guidelines called for stringent dietary restrictions
o “We got giant boxes of cookies and hid them in one of the couches, and this one guy was putting them in ceiling tiles”
o “The most integral part of the study was the diet restriction, and we were just gorging ourselves at 2 a.m. on Cheez Doodles”

Researcher
- Scientific fraud
- Woo Suk Hwan (Korea)
o Stem cell fraud published in Science
o Fabricated his data
Subconscious (cultural) Bias
- Acupuncture
- 47 studies in China, Japan, Taiwan, between 1966 and 1995
o All 47 found a positive effect for acupuncture
- 97 studies in US, Sweden, UK
o 56% for acupuncture

The Double Blind Study
- Standard in Drug testing
- Neither patient, nor doctor know who is getting the drug or placebo
- Control for expectations of the patient… of the doctor
- Doctor’s attitude/bias can influence patient’s recovery
- Researcher’s hypothesis can influence their results, or how they see their results
- Power band bracelet
o “use holographic technology” to “resonate with and respond to the natural energy field of the body”
o "In our advertising we stated that Power Balance wristbands improved your strength, balance and flexibility. We admit that there is no credible scientific evidence that supports our claims and therefore we engaged in misleading conduct in breach of s52 of the Trade Practices Act 1974. If you feel you have been misled by our promotions, we wish to unreservedly apologize and offer a full refund.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
- Fine motor refers to
o Movements performed as a functions of small muscle groups
- Middle adulthood is characterized as ages
o 40-60
- Cephalocaudal refers to growth in the human body that proceeds from the
o Head toward the feet
- A study examining difference in throwing performance amoung children ages 5, 10 and 15 using data collected on the same day is an example of
o Cross-sectional research
Prenatal Development Concerns
The History…
- For thousands of years, childbirth was the most common cause of death for women and infants
- 1930s- delivering a child the most dangerous event in a woman’s life
- 1 in 150 pregnancies ended in death of the mother
- 1 in 3 babies died
The Good News…
- Both mother and infant mortality rates during pregnancy/childbirth have fallen more than 90% since the 1930s
Prenatal Period
- Myth – maternal environment is a protective shelter for the developing embryo

- Thalidomide – teratogen
o A tranquilizing drug
o Responsible for causing over 5000 malformed births (west Germany)
o Malformed arms. Lack of outer ear, missing bones
o However, some babies born with no ill effects
Toronto Star, Jan, 2010

Prenatal Period
- Teratogen
o Environmental agent that cuases harm to the embryo or fetus
o Teratogens are most dangerous between 3 and 8 weeks of gestation

First Two Weeks
- Germinal period
o Teratogen introduced at this stage – often kills all of the cells, resulting in death of the embryo
o If the teratogen damages only a few cells embryo might recover and develop normally
Critical Periods of Human Development

Drugs and Medications
- Can harm developing fetus
- Recreational drugs
o Alcohol
o Cocaine
o Tobacco
o Marijuana
Alcohol
- Prevalence
o Use among pregnant women – 12-13%
o Binge drinking – 2% (4 or more drinks at one sitting)
- American academy of Pediatrics
o There is no safe dose of alcohol for pregnant women
- Growth retardation found with one drink per day
- Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
o Cluster of birth defects resulting from prenatal alcohol exposure
- Alcohol-related neurodevelopment disorders (ARND)
o Less severe symptoms
- Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS)
o Withdrawal symptoms

- “ I went into a delivery room, and the smell of alcohol was so powerful, you’d think it was a brewery. The baby had been soaking in alcohol throughout the pregnancy…”
FAS
- Michel Chretien
o Adopted from an orphanage in the Northwest Territories
o Impaired driving, sexual assault
o 3 years in prison
- Over 50% face addiction issues
- 60% have trouble with the law
- 80% have trouble finding work
- 95% suffer from mental health disorder
Alcohol and Birth Abnormalities

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome/Alcohol-Related Neurodevelopment Disorder

Cocaine
- Effects of use during pregnancy
o Increased occurrence of miscarriage
o Users have 35% higher incidence of preterm birth
o Fetal brain damage- due to oxygen deprivation
o Blood vessels to placenta affecter, impeding nutrition
- “Cocaine babies” exhibit mental retardation 5x greater than that of the general population
o Reduced attention span
o Lac of responsiveness to voices, faces, which makes child rearing difficult
o Often profound effect on motor skills

Tobacco
- 2500+ different ingredients in tobacco leaves and smoke
o Many appear to have negative effect on developing fetus
- Approx. 14% of women who smoke during pregnancy
- Prenatal complications
o Increased chance of miscarriage
o Higher rates of mortality at or around time of birth
- Postnatal complications
o Lover average birth weight
▪ Small for gestational age
o Long-term retardation of growth
▪ Weight, stature, head circumference
o Respiratory disorders

▪ Pneumonia
▪ Bronchitis
- Behavioral effects
o Reduced mental alertness
o Reduced visual alertness
Cannabis (Marijuana)
- Comparatively little research on the effects of marijuana and its effect on the human embryo or fetus
- Research that has been done is often conflicting
- Cannabis is associated with no known obstetric complications
Toxoplasmosis
- Parasite – can occur when pregnant women:
o Eat undercooked meat
o Spend too much time with cat litter
- 85% of newborns will experience convulsions and mental retardation
- 75% of newborns will have motor problems
- 50% of newborns will have visual problmes
If you’re getting worried…
- List of potential teratogens seem to increase daily
- But it is helpful to remember that only:
o 4% of babies will be born with abnormalities
o of those 4% most will have abnormalities so slight that they will have minimal impact on daily functioning
Today’s mortality rates
- 1 in 500 babies (1 in 30 in 1930s)
- 1 in 10,000 mothers (1 in 150 in 1930s)
Risk Factors
- One might be at slightly higher risk when bearing children if:
o Over 35 years at time of delivery
o Has already given birth (or whose partner has) to a child with genetic disease or birth defect
o Has a family history of genetic disease or birth defects

Maternal Nutrition
- Sedentary women need to increase caloric intake by 300 kcal/day
- Active women must make additional adjustments upon caloric expenditure
- Weight gain is based upon pregravid weight (weight prior to conception)
- In women who have a pregravid weight appropriate for height, the weight gain will equal 25-30 lbs.

- Overweight women can gain slightly less (BMI > 25)
- Underweight women will want to gain more (BMI <18.5)
You are what you eat…
- You are what your mother ate
- You are what your grandmother ate
Maternal Nutrition
- Grandmother effect
o The second – as well as the first generation show the effects of poor nutrition
o Even if a woman attains adequate nutrition throughout life, she has an increased chance of giving birth to an abnormal offspring if her mother was undernourished
▪ Faulty internal organs in the mother
Epigenetics
- How chemical tags attach themselves to DNA
- Because these chemical tags are independent of the DNA sequence, they are considered to be epigenetic factors
- Theses chemical tags can control gene expression, silencing or activating genes
- Examine the role this silencing or activation of genes might play in cell development, disease, and heredity
- How do exposures to nutrients, toxins, pollutants, and other environmental agents affect gene expression?
o Interaction of nature and nurture
- “As bizarre as it may sound, what we eat and smoke today could affect the health and behaviour of your great-grandchildren” (DNA is not destiny, Discover)
Exercise and Pregnancy
- Pregnancy a good time to start exercise program, even if previously sedentary
- If previously sedentary, start of second trimester may be a better time to start exercise program
- First trimester associated with:
o Nausea, fatigue
o High general rate of early miscarriage

o Possible teratogenic effects of over-heating

- Materna
o Blood shunted to muscles during exercise
▪ Does this maternal response decrease fetal oxygen supply?
o Body temperature rises
▪ Could be dangerous to fetus
▪ Important to stay hydrated during exercise
- Fetal responses
o Heart rate increases 10-30 beats per minute when mother exercises
o Heart can stay elevated during recovery depending upon the intensity of maternal exercise
o More research needed to determine fetal responses to maternal exercise
- “There is no data in humans to indicate that women should limit exercise intensity and lower target heart rates because of potential adverse effects”
- Regular, moderate intensity physical activity….. in the absence of contraindications
- Relative contraindications to exercise
o Chronic bronchitis
o Poorly controlled Type I diabetes
o Extreme morbid obesity
o Extreme underweight (BMI < 12)
o History of extremely sedentary lifestyle
o Poorly controlled hypertension
o Heavy smoker

Infant Reflexes
Primitive Reflexes Palmer Grasp
- The palmer grasp reflex is one of the most noticeable reflexes to emerge
- Endures through the 4th month postpartum
- Leads to voluntary reaching and grasping
- Lack of this reflex may signal neurological disorder
Sucking
- Occurs pre-and postnatally
o Babies sometimes born with blisters on lips
- Stimulated by touching the lips
Search
- Helps the baby locate nourishment
- Baby turns head toward the food
- Usually works in conjunction with sucking reflex
- Normally persists through 3rd month

Moro Reflex
- Baby suddenly lowered
- Moro reflex causes the arms and legs to extend immediately
Plantar Grasp
- The toes appear to be grasping
- Stimulus is touching the ball of the foot
- Normally lasts one year
- This reflex must disappear before the baby can stand or walk
Babinski Reflex
- Elicited by a stimulus similar to plantar grasp but response is different
- Toes spread
Mandibular Reflex
- Makes the eyes close, the mouth open, and/or the neck flexes which tilts the head forward
- Stimulus is pressure to both palms
- Normally disappears at 3 months
Stepping
- Stepping reflex is a forerunner to walking

Crawling

- Believed to be essential to the voluntary creeping movement
- Observed from birth to 3-4 months
- Touching the feet when the babies laying on their stomach
Swimming
- Characterized by the baby’s swimming-like movements when held in a horizontal position
Labyrinthine
- This reflex endures thorough out most of the first year
- Related to upright posture
- Head tilts in the opposite direction of body tilt
Pull-up reflex
- When the baby is tipped backward, supporting arms flex in an effort to maintain the upright position
Parachuting Reflexes
- Propping reflexes
- Related to upright posture
- This reflex looks like a conscious attempt to break a potential fall, but subcortical
Importance of Infant Reflexes
- Reflexive movements occur during the last 4 months of prenatal life and generally, the first 4 months to 1 year after birth
o Reflexes are involuntary

Infant vs. Lifespan Reflexes
- Most “infant” reflexes do not last beyond the first year
- Reflexes that endure are called “lifespan” reflexes
o Knee-jerk reflex
o Flexor-withdrawal reflex
▪ Exists from infancy through entire life
▪ Arm flexes upon touching sharp or hot object
Role of the Reflexes in Survival
- Evolutionary adaption
- Primitive Reflexes
- Important for
o Nutrition
▪ Sucking reflex
▪ Search reflex
o Survival
▪ Labyrinthine reflex

• Prevent suffocation
Role of Reflexes in Developing Future movement
- Postural reflexes
o Prevalent belief: automatic movement is “practice” for future voluntary movements
▪ Other experts believe these reflexes may not be related to future motor development
o These reflexes disappear when (or sometimes before) voluntary behavior

- When the stepping reflex is stimulated, walking may begin at an earlier age
- Grasping
o Bower (1976)
o Stimulation of reflex led to earlier emergence of voluntary movement
o Some children, no disappearance of reflex at all
o Abilities disappear because they are not exercised?
- Practicing
o May enhance muscle strength coordination
o May be some benefits of early stimulation
Reflexes as Diagnostic Tools
- Can help determine the level of neurological maturation and neurological dysfunction
o Pediatrics use tests (Primitive Reflex Profile) to help determine motor milestones
- Problems
o Variability in how babies mature
▪ Guidelines for appearance and disappearance of reflexes are just that…. guidelines
o Conditions must be optimal
▪ State of quiet
▪ Babies that are restless, distracted, sleepy may not show response
- Parental Anxiety

o Parents become frantic if they can’t elicit response
▪ Incorrect application

Effects of Early Stimulation and Deprivation
The general philosophical trend has been that stimulation is always “good” and deprivation is always “bad”
Effects of Early Stimulation
- Many parents believe that kindergarten is “too late”
- Increasing trend to begin “teaching” children at birth
- Parents believe early educational stimulation is valuable
- Some experts believe that too much early stimulation toward a skill, like reading, may actually cause difficulty later in reading
Programs to enhance early Motor Development
- Programs designed to stimulate early motor development fall into tow categories
o No programming
o Programming
- No Programing
o These programs do not emphasize specific practice of future motor skills
o Instruction should be withheld until the infant learns body control
o Infants are to be left on their back until they are capable of changing position
- Programming
o Parent takes an active role in moving the baby or its limbs of the infant during activity
o Specialized equipment is available
o Manual manipulation for infant fitness
- Claims of programs should be viewed with some caution
o Normal development
o Lack of control group
Gymboree
- Philosophy: preschool years may be the most critical part of education
- Preschoolers need to be provided with certain types of play activities that are essential in development but not available at home
o Safe and noncompetitive
- Program includes 7 levels of design to enhance motor skills, social skills and self-esteem
o Physical fitness
o Arts

o International play
o Music and dance
o Yoga
- There is no controlled research to suggest that this program is superior to “no program”
- Although
o Fun is paramount
o Parents claim that programs are beneficial for both child and parent
o Consumers should be cautious
Swim Programs
- Increasingly popular
- Fuelled by
o Dreams of Olympic glory
o Desire to “drownproof” child
- The American Academy of Pediatrics, American Red Cross, and YMCA state that:
o Infant and toddler aquatic programs DO NOT decrease risk of drowning
- Children are not ready for swimming lessons until their 4th birthday
- Drownproofing programs may give parents false sense of security
o Child may be at greater risk of drowning
- Hyponatremia
o Water intoxication
o Occurs when an individual ingests too much water
▪ The body’s electrolytes are reduced and kidneys cannot filter excess fluid
▪ Sodium levels reduced
▪ Symptoms of restlessness, disorientation, weakness
o Common in those who practice forced or frequent submersion
Suzuki
- How do children learn Japanese at such a young age, just by being immersed in the language?
- Could this be applied to music?
Suzuki Method of Violin Playing
- Begin at birth
o Infants listens to violin music
o Child watches musicians play violin
o Essential to learn tone, pitch
o High quality music important
o Poor music worse than no music
o Care-giver singing off-key may be detrimental
- The child begins lessons at 2 to 2 ½ years
- Child should not be forced into taking lessons

o Child’s motivation is important
o Should request lessons/violin
- A properly sized violin is used
Suzuki Method
- Co-operation, rather than competition is emphasized
- What can sports programs learn from this?
- But program not without criticisms
o Little is known about the residual effects
o Like any program, lots of dropouts
o Some who think that it is too much violin at too young an age
o Related to early sport specialization

Head Start Program
- Designed to give financially disadvantaged children a “head start” in education
- Started in 1965 as part of “war on poverty” by President Johnson
- Current stats
o Served almost 25 million children
o Over one million children currently enrolled
o 200,000 staff
- Major goal of head start
o Enhance the social competence of children from lower income families
o Short and long term success
▪ Improve behavioral outcomes in children
▪ Children of Head Start programs were to complete a high school education without failure compared to their
socioeconomic counterparts
- Keys to the program:
o Those who were most disadvantaged seemed to improve the most
o High quality of classroom experience
o Training and experience of the teachers
Effects of Early Deprivation
- Studying “deprivation” van teach is something about “normal” development
- Although, problems inherent in studying deprivation
o Ethical Issues
- Animal models have provided important information
- Rare human cases in society provided additional insight
- The Hopi tribe
- Hopi cradle boards
o Up until 1 year of age, Hopi babies swaddled and tied to a board
o Up to 23 hours per day initially
o Although, these babies were not permitted typical “infant” movements, when free of the board, these infants exhibited normal movement.

Early Deprivation
- Deprivation Dwarfism
o A disorder resulting in reduced or failed growth
o Infants who are hospitalized for extended periods fail to gain weight and develop respiratory infections
o Symptoms disappear when infant is returned home to a more stimulating environment
o Also occurs in situations where children are not nurtured in a loving and caring environment despite proper and plentiful nutrition
o An emotional disturbance that is registered in the brain
o Appears to impede release of growth hormone - somatotropin
o Children often able to “catch up”, if condition is caught in time
- Young Savage of Abeyron
o Victor, a young boy found in the woods of France in 1799 at 11-12 years of age
▪ Could not talk
▪ Walking skills limited (described as an animal-like trot)
▪ Rodent-like chewing behaviors
▪ Intellectually delayed
o Despite attempts to remediate, he showed little improvement intellectually
o Died at 40 years of age
- Anna
o A victim of severe deprivation due to isolation (1946)
o Left in an attic room until six years of age
o When discovered she showed signs of minimal intelligence, could not walk or talk, and was extremely malnourished
o By the age of 10 years, Anna was able to:
▪ Walk and run clumsily, string beads (sign of slightly improved motor control)
▪ Spoken language very limited (level of a 2yr old)
o Died at age 11 years
- Josef Fritzl
o Kept daughter locked in their basement for 24 years
o Fathered 7 children
o Tried and convicted in March 2009
o Recent cases in Italy, Columbia, Poland
- Genie
o Severe social isolation for first 10 years of life
o Became focus of intense research agenda
o Remedial (catch-up) attempts met with some success
Stimulation and Deprivation Concepts

- Critical Period
o A time of particular or maximum sensitivity to environmental stimuli
o If a child is stimulated during the sensitive period, the associated behavior/development is likely to occur
o Specific time in a persons life
o For many skills, if critical period by passed, skill may be learned but likely at less than full potential
Language Development
- If the left hemisphere of brain is damaged during critical period for language
o Right hemisphere substitutes
- If the left hemisphere of brain is damaged after language is developed
o Person unlikely to speak fluently
o Critical period for right hemisphere substitution
Other evidence of Critical periods
- Cats
o If one-month old kittens deprived of light for 3-4 days, brain damage occurs
o If deprived of light for extended period (ie. one month) brain damage is permanent
- Birds
o First 10 months-1 year critical time for certain birds to develop “proper” birdsong
o Birds deprived of hearing their birdsong developed modified or abnormal version

Stimulation and Deprivation Concepts
- Four essential elements a critical period
o 1- State of readiness must be attained in order for the environmental stimulation to be effective
o 2- There is a specific time limit
▪ Appropriate stimulation must occur during a specific time for optimal development
o 3- The effects of the stimulation during the critical period create a permanent and durable imprint
▪ Once you’ve got it, you’ve got it (even if you don’t do it for a while…)
▪ If you’re not exposed during the critical period, may never develop optimally
o 4- There are critical periods for all aspects of human behavior
▪ Cognitive social skills
▪ Motor skills

▪ Physical growth
o Readiness
▪ The establishment of the minimum characteristics necessary for particular human behavior to be acquired
▪ Depends on:
• Adequate level of physical growth
• Associated neurological patterns
• Sufficient motivation
▪ Early experience with a particular skill before a child is “ready” may not be valuable
▪ Problem-signs for readiness are unrecognizable at present
▪ Alternative theory
• Kids are always ready to learn new skill-responsibility for proper instruction lies with teachers/parents
- Catch up
o The human power “to stabilize and return” to a genetically determined growth path “after being pushed off trajectory”
▪ Associated with physical growth and motor development
▪ Children can also catch-up intellectually, socially, and emotionally
▪ Genie
• How much of the “critical period” has passed?
• How much catch-up is still positive?
- Rhesus Monkey
o Isolated from 3,6, to 12 months old
o Longer periods of isolation led to increasingly asocial behaviour and more problems adapting to others
o 6 months seemed to be key time period
o Gene- 10 years
Genie
- The timing
o Her discovery coincided with the release of the movie “The Wild Child”
o Noam Chomsky – ‘Critical period’
o Genie a perfect ‘test case’

Discussion
- Are those who conducted research on genie responsible for her care after the experiments are over?
- Is it ethical to ‘study’ genie?
o Matter of informed consent
o What is justifiable in the pursuit of science?
- Rhesus monkey ethical to study?

Genie Today
- 57 years of age
- Living in adult foster care facility
o Privately run facility for six to eight mentally underdeveloped adults.
- Regressed, lost ability of speak after abuse in foster homes
- Kelly Weedon
o 23-year-old student at the University of Greenwich in Britain
- Learned Genie's real name and, "without too much more investigation" could find her – but has decided against it
- "It wouldn't be fair," she said. "It would be too invasive, and she isn't the same little girl when the stories were written about her. I wouldn't do it -- for her sake and her memory."
Jaycee Lee Dugard
- Abducted in 1991 at age 11
- Discovered in 2009, at age 29 (19 years later)
- Abductor father two children with her

2009
- Josef Fritzl
- Kept daughter locked in their basement for 24 years
- Fathered 7 children
- Charged with rape, incest, false imprisonment and slavery.
- Daughter gave birth to seven children, three of whom Fritzl and his wife adopted. Three children remained in the cellar with their mother.
- Neighbours – initially expressed shock at the allegations.
o Said Fritzl treated his grandchildren with affection and appeared to be a good grandfather.
o Former colleagues described him as hard working
- Kerstin, Stefan and Felix – the three children confined to the cellar their whole lives.
o No natural light, poor air quality
o Limited physical movement
o Motor skills?
o Social skills?
o Emotional development?
o Intellectual development
Domains of Human Development

- The four domains are useful for categorizing the study of human and motor development
- Domains are not discrete
Fritzl Saga – Scientific and Ethical Questions
- To what extent can the children be rehabilitated?
- Where should the funding come from?
- Should they be “studied”?
o Should we try and use, learn from their experience to benefit human kind?

Teacher: penina kaseu

COMMUNITY HEALTH

Teacher: penina kaseu

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Available courses

ADVOCACY AND LOBBYING

SOCIAL WORK THEORY

TECHNOLOGY

Certificate level

TOPIC 1

Common activities of social workers

THE MISSION OF SOCIAL WORK

Curing

Changing

Where Do Social Workers Work?

What Do Social Workers Do?

TOPIC 2

Questions

TOPIC 3

1. Background

International Declaration of Ethical Principles of Social Work

ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES

Social Work Standards Relative to Clients

Social Work Standards Relative to Agencies and Organizations

Social Work Standards Relative to Colleagues

Standards Relative to the Profession

Revision questions

TOPIC 4

Conceptual analysis of society

Purposes

Questions

TOPIC 5 METHODS OF SOCIAL WORK

3. COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION METHOD

SOCIAL RESEARCH

According to P. K Young:

According to CORDESCO:

According to LUNDBERG:

Social research is important for the following reasons:

Pure research

4. Social action

Methods of Social Action:

Stages of social action

Question:

ODL ASSIGNMENTS –SUBMISSION DATE: 21ST OCT. 2016

Assignment 2

socia policy and administration

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

UNIT CODE: CED 1210

Definition of terms Policy

Administration

Social policy

Decision

Decision-making Social services

Social welfare:

Social welfare services:

Social welfare administration

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL POLICY

Reference

WHAT IS SOCIAL POLICY?

What is a social policy?

NB

The scope of social policy

Features of social policy

Nature and extent of social policy and administration

NB

REFERENCES

_welfare_state [accessed Jan 27 2018].

Other objectives of social policy

Social policy, social welfare, and the welfare state (PDF Download Available). Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265156235_Social_policy_social_welfare_and_the

CONCEPT IN SOCIAL POLICY ADMINISTRATION

Social policy as social administration

Reference

MODELS OF SOCIAL POLICY

MODEL B: The Industrial Achievement-Performance Model of Social Policy

MODEL C: The Institutional Redistributive Model of Social Policy

TOPIC 4

CHARACTERISTICS OF DECISION MAKING

TYPES OF DECISIONS

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

CHALLENGES OF DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

Others challenges

ii. Un-supporting Environment:

ODL ASSIGNMENTS –SUBMISSION DATE: 21^ST OCT. 2016